Extremism

The MIT Press Essential Knowledge

by J.M. Berger

What extremism is, how extremist ideologies are constructed, and why extremism can escalate into violence.

A rising tide of extremist movements threaten to destabilize civil societies around the globe. It has never been more important to understand extremism, yet the dictionary definition—a logical starting point in a search for understanding—tells us only that extremism is “the quality or state of being extreme.” In this volume in the MIT Press Essential Knowledge series, J. M. Berger offers a nuanced introduction to extremist movements, explaining what extremism is, how extremist ideologies are constructed, and why extremism can escalate into violence. Berger shows that although the ideological content of extremist movements varies widely, there are common structural elements.

Berger, an expert on extremist movements and terrorism, explains that extremism arises from a perception of “us versus them,” intensified by the conviction that the success of “us” is inseparable from hostile acts against “them.” Extremism differs from ordinary unpleasantness—run-of-the-mill hatred and racism—by its sweeping rationalization of an insistence on violence. Berger illustrates his argument with case studies and examples from around the world and throughout history, from the destruction of Carthage by the Romans—often called “the first genocide”—to the apocalyptic jihadism of Al Qaeda, America's new “alt-right,” and the anti-Semitic conspiracy tract The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. He describes the evolution of identity movements, individual and group radicalization, and more. If we understand the causes of extremism, and the common elements of extremist movements, Berger says, we will be more effective in countering it.

Genres: Politics, Nonfiction, History, Sociology, Terrorism, Psychology, Philosophy

214 pages, Paperback

Published August 28, 2018

About the author

J.M. Berger is the author of Jihad Joe: Americans Who Go to War in the Name of Islam and coauthor (with Jessica Stern) of ISIS: The State of Terror. He is a fellow with the Counter-Terrorism Strategic Communications Project and a nonresident Fellow with the Alliance for Securing Democracy.

Reviews

[Gabriel Avocado · Rating 1 out of 5]

Don't waste your time. By his own definition he's a Zionist anti Palestinian extremist. This was promising but as soon as he started painting Palestine as a land full of religious nut jobs I bailed. Free Palestine.

[Steve · Rating 3 out of 5]

Short book attempting to define extremism, give a bit of history, and explain what extremists do. Extremism in this book is defined as the belief that an in-group’s success or survival can never be separated from the need for hostile action against an out-group. Of course, the concepts of in-groups and out-groups are gone into a lot. A little attention was given to the psychology of it all, but not nearly enough. Even though huge masses of people suffer in all sorts of ways only a few become extremists. Why? That’s what I’d like to know more about.

[Anastasia Walker]

To this educated lay reader, Berger's book is a lucid, succinct sketch of its subject. Berger defines extremism in structural terms as an ideologically framed, grievance driven coalescing of "in groups" that define themselves against one or more "out groups" which they perceive as existential threats. He also provides a basic crisis-solution model for the development of extremist movements, which he argues exploits fears about broad, complex "uncertainties" (economic, political, environmental, etc.) by effectively personalizing and simplifying them. As with any 10,000 foot view of a complex subject, the virtues of Berger's broader conceptualization of the subject (simplicity, clarity) will potentially lose much of their efficacy when dragged into the brambles--a shortcoming he is careful to point out. However, the benefits of his approach that he identifies, it seems to me, are patent: notably, it (1) frees us from thinking of extremism as the product of particular religions or cultures (viz. Islam), and (2) enables policymakers to strategize more effectively when and how to intervene in situations that appear ripe for the emergence of extremist movements. In sum, the book is a worthwhile read for those interested in its subject.

[ØMVЯ · Rating 3 out of 5]

Decent attempt to provide clarity yet suffers from certain perspectives such as excluding state violence as terror, a convenient definition that lends into the identification of extremism. A notable word explained includes 'crisis' from the Greek 'krisis' meaning some outlier [event] related to criticism, critic, critique, and criterion in the way of some remarkable or uncommon feature.

[Shawn · Rating 4 out of 5]

Concise and Informative on a foundational level.

[S · Rating 3 out of 5]

The author weaves a sizable collection of academic studies together with his own work in the field to produce a solid summary of the social psychology behind extremist groups and individuals. The book is excellent in its delivery, beginning with the earliest recorded examples of extremism in ancient Rome and making it's way to the impacts of social media on radicalization. A few main themes are repeated throughout, particularly those related to identity and legitimacy — concepts that are essential to the ideology of any extremist organization according to the author's definition. My only issue was that the author rarely delved into real world or quantitative evidence in any more than a cursory way, though it is not particularly outrageous that such details were left out to keep the book at a reasonable length.

[Lingwijournal · Rating 3 out of 5]

I must admit that I had higher hopes towards this book, probably because of further more practical or concrete ideas I link to the topic, and I feel a good amount of dissatisfaction, but the book delivers on its promises - which, I have simply ignored and expected more as usual. I must note to fellow future readers, that this book is on extremism in the academic sense, it tries to define extremism (all kinds) and provide thoughts on the main factors influencing it. This book will NOT provide you more information on how to tackle extremism spreading on social media, counter-terrorism, analysis of the currently most prevalent types of extremisms. This is a general insight book, supposed to provide you with a basic understanding so that you could move on to more in-depth reading.

[Ryan · Rating 4 out of 5]

Generalized theory of extremism, based on historical (Rome and Cato's utter destruction of Carthage), islamic terrorism, ISIS/AQ, and the alt-right. Largely ignores the leftist violence of thee 20th century as well as today, and doesn't seem to generalize to some of those movements (communism).

Essentially, it is a psychological theory of ingroup vs. outgroup, rather than the specifies of ideology. This does seem to be a a major factor, but isn't sufficient to describe violence, and doesn't really even address certain kinds of extremism. Also, while he does a reasonably good job of identifying the problem, there's not much in thee way of viable proposed solution.

[Sami Eerola · Rating 4 out of 5]

Very good introduction and summary of what we know about extemism. The biggest minus is that the writer forgets the existence of far-left extremism. At least i understand how you can forget, when there hardly is any more far-left extremism after the 70´s. But the theories presented here can be applied to far-left extremism as well.

[Matt Mansfield · Rating 4 out of 5]

Coming to Terms with Extremism

With the recent violent demonstrations by an unruly mob at the US Capitol understanding what extremism is and how it develops is timely and urgent. The rush to explain and take action runs the risk of counter efforts being dramatic but unproductive. Particularly with the likelihood of more angry confrontations and more confusion.

Where to start after the media have moved on to cover other stories?

J.M. Berger’s 2018 “Extremism”, developed as part of The MIT Essential Knowledge Series, offers a starting point with interesting insights about this enduring phenomenon. Make no mistake, though, this is a work in progress.

The author, a scholar and research fellow for VOX-Pol in Britain for this area and related fields as well as author of an earlier work, “Jihad Joe: Americans Who Go to War in the name of Islam” and co-author of “ISIS: The State of Terrorism”, freely admits public policy is racing to catch up with these activities and more research is needed.

Through six chapters Berger sets out to define extremism, what its basic components are, how people can be attracted to a particular cause and whether they will be radicalized to point of violent extremism. To grasp extremism, he argues the concepts must be stripped to their most fundamental meanings beyond the headline labels such as Islamic State and white supremacy.

And while important, Berger disputes the traditional root causes of poverty, ignorance or political affiliation. The bedrock of extremism is uncertainty upon which a group can build its appeals to those troubled by existing conditions.

Global interconnection through 24/7 media and social media communication availability increases the potential for extremism and its antisocial behaviors. The process of involvement and evolution can be different for participants, some just joining the group with low-level involvement and others moving quickly to more violent behavior.

Important to creating an in-group identity and allegiance is establishing definition of an out-group, or one that must be attacked in many different ways, verbally to physically violent.

Radicalization becomes the process of transforming from mild negative attitudes toward an out-group to increasing hostility, eventually a life-death crisis for survival, whether real though more likely manufactured fictions based on perceptions. The stronger the perceived threats and self-reinforcing sense of existential crisis, the more likely extreme behavior will result.

There is considerably more detail, albeit presented in a dry academic style and approach with historical current examples aplenty. The information is clear and well summarized in the end.

In light of the free-flowing divisive rhetoric in mainstream and social media today, this reading may help to gain focus and find thoughtful ways to deescalate.

[Alan · Rating 3 out of 5]

I thought this short volume would be just a sort of CliffNotes on 'extremism' for students. Instead, it's a fairly thoughtful discussion of the subject, starting with possible definitions and continuing with implications of the author Berger's chosen definition on how we can think clearly about extremism. Notably Berger rejects defining extremism in terms of its content (whether political, ideological, religious, or racial) and instead frames extremism as the product of group identity. (The putting aside of content is reminiscent of Nagle's "Kill All Normies" interpretation of the alt-light as a style more than a real ideology). Specifically, people are social beings, and as such naturally identify some of their fellow humans as members of their own in-group, and others as not members, and thus consigned to an out-group. These classifications are normally conditional (someone can be of a different church and yet be a colleague at work) and flexible (today voting the same way, next election not). However, sometimes and for some people the identity hardens into something all-consuming. But even that is not necessarily 'extremist' according to Berger; the tipping point is for the members of the in-group to interpret their identity in terms of opposition to out-groups. Down this slippery slope, one or more out-groups become existential threats to the in-group, justifying hostility, segregation, and even violence. From what is essentially a psychological or sociological explanation for extremism, Berger effectively posits that extremism will always exist, all that the rest of us can do is to limit its spread from a hard-core in-group to the larger not-(yet?)-radicalized in-group. How to do this? By not frightening the larger in-group with out-group hostility that gets interpreted as an existential threat, thus confirming the extremists' narrative. Berger doesn't say this, but it sounds like his prescription is don't be extremist yourself, and the other guys will be less likely to respond in kind.

[Kristian · Rating 5 out of 5]

Notes (not really a review):
Definition of extremism belief that an in-group's success or survival can never be separated from the need for hostile action against an out-group. Identity construct -> crisis-solution construct -> escalate demand for legitimacy (radicalization) -> increasingly negative and hostile actions (severity). Creates a more substantive definition of extremism rather than just "extremists are extreme; extremism is having extreme values/ideas. Establishes a scope of research and this will help drive our increased understanding of extremists/extremism and therefore extremist violence/terrorism. Answers questions but also leaves us with questions.
Questions this book attempts to answer:
How do we understand extremism outside of the realm of a single ideological strain?
How can we separate our conversations of extremism from ordinary political disagreements?
How can a better understanding of extremism reduce its terrible cost in human lives?
Great analogy:
"No two hurricanes are exactly alike but we can recognize how they form, follow them through states and estimate their future behavior (imperfectly). We cannot understand hurricanes if we do not understand tropical storms and we cannot understand storms if we do not understand rain and water."

[Passeint Ahmed · Rating 2 out of 5]

After reading this book, 3 main concepts were running back and forth in my mind: In-group, Out-group and Uncertainty. It argues that extremist groups are created because an In-group is threatened by an existential threat posed by an Out-group and this happens is because of a feeling of uncertainty people have when they witness major personal or public shifts disrupting the status quo or the world as they know it. As I can't really disagree with the arguments made throughout the book, I can't also ignore how extreme I found them to be. Here, Berger isn't just offering a fresh perspective to the problem of extremism but he is also discrediting all PCVE efforts previous to his. At one point I got really confused because he was saying that addressing political and socio-economic root causes of extremism is practically useless but also addressing ideological aspect of the problem equally is. So what we should now? The answer is that we should just stick to his model, forget about everything else and shift all our policies and programs accordingly.

[Bryan · Rating 2 out of 5]

Man, this took a while. Part of MIT Press's Essential Knowledge series, this book felt more like an enjoyable textbook from an intro university course. It is a wonderful reference book, and has really expanded my thinking around what extremism is, how it might be defined, and what aspects of it look like. I've noticed since beginning, I've seen traits detailed here that present as introductory extremism groups. I think I would have enjoyed this book much better if COVID didn't happen, and I had people to discuss these ideas with.
I will never read this again, the middle is such a slog, but I am intrigued by the ideas here, and will reference both this book, and the extensive notes referenced in this book (several of which are fascinating read on their own).

[Nathan Gilliatt · Rating 5 out of 5]

This short book is exactly what I hoped it would be: a brief overview, some theory to move understanding beyond definition by example, some discussion of current thinking and issues, and a curated list of sources for further reading. I particularly appreciate the effort put into definitions and theoretical framing, which propose a path for moving beyond reflexive thinking about current threats.

Of course a book this small isn't comprehensive or the last word on anything. That's not its purpose. It is, however, an excellent starting point and shortcut to understanding a few key issues whose misunderstanding is at the root of many failed initiatives.

[Hrishi · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a great book that made me really think about how I understand (or should understand) Extremism. It does a great job in pointing out that Extremism and Ideology are fuzzy terms, and certainly with its own definition of these things makes you reexamine entities and people you did not think of as extremist before.

That said this is clearly an academic work, and perhaps much too short. The precis style means you zip past important points without mulling over them, and at times the prose is perhaps too dry for wider reach and could've done with an anecdote or three. I usually complain that books are longer than they should be so this is a somewhat hilarious complaint :)

[Bri C C · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book should be required for anyone involved in politics or activism. Sadly, it will not and has not been read by many.

Berger outlines what extremism is and provides an excellent definition that is ideologically agnostic and includes state sponsored and non-state actor extremism. He draws on examples from many different societies, cultures and identity groups, and is fair to all parties involved.

He also touches on the process by which groups and individuals become radicalized, and explains them in a very clear cut way with easy to understand graphics.

The writing quality is high yet easily digestible.

[Ethan · Rating 5 out of 5]

An excellent primer on a subject every American needs to know more about. When we live in a world where people increasingly feel the need to turn to to radical ideas, conspiracy theories, and acts of violence to understand the world in 2020, it’s important to be able to recognize what extremism is, how to define it, and begin to think of how to counter it when it comes up in our lives.

Berger presents a very clear definition and gives a thorough, if brief and high-level, introduction to the concept. Highly recommended.

[Antti Rautiainen · Rating 2 out of 5]

Jos jossain tutkitaan terrorismia tai ekstremismiä, todennäköisesti tarkoituksena on keksiä oikeutusta länsimaiden sotaretkille ja lennokkisalamurhille, tai vähintäänkin Palestiinan miehitykselle. J.M. Bergerin Ekstremismi (Terra Cognita 2019, alkuperäisteos MIT Press 2018) ei ollut tässä suhteessa pettymys. Kirja jopa ylitti odotukseni, koska se onnistui määrittelemään itse itsensä ekstremistiseksi.

Loput arvostelusta: https://puheenvuoro.uusisuomi.fi/antt...

[Ash Higgins · Rating 5 out of 5]

"The complexity of extremism now bedevils all discussions, exacerbated by an all too human tendency to describe any difference in the extremist frame" — J.M. Berger, Extremism, Page 21, MIT Essential Knowledge.

As giant war/anthro/society nerd this book goes HARD but Berger doesn't let anyone off the hook. He recognizes situations that foment extremism in groups and people and let's you know exactly the parameters.

This isn't just a read just for war nerds, either. It's a very measured consideration of how extremism can grow.

[McKenna · Rating 4 out of 5]

A short (and very relevant) crash course on the history and components of extremism. Berger describes extremist groups as believing that “the in-group's success is inseparable from hostile action toward the out-group. Permanent peace cannot be achieved until the out-group has been decisively dominated or destroyed.” When analyzing the components of an extremist movement in the context of the Palestinian genocide in Gaza, it becomes all the more evident that Israel’s leadership embodies all of the qualities that make up an extremely violent and dangerous extremist group.

[Sevim · Rating 5 out of 5]

Extremism is a socially transmitted, vicious disease. The persistence of racism in history is extremely disturbing. It’s hard to accept the recurrence of these violent cycles of massive destruction, as we now know the damage they cause in societies.

Apparently, the improvement of health, wealth, and happiness in the world is not enough to decrease violence or to stop hatred. Extremists constantly evolve with times by adopting new ways, technologies, and by redefining their identities and ideologies. We can certainly do better to prevent the spread.

[Zenoliu · Rating 4 out of 5]

What exactly happened in the process of personal resentment evolving into extremist violence?

1. Over-categorization, making judgments with insufficient information, resulting in a large amount of bias.
2. Relying on becoming part of a certain group to combat uncertainty, rather than relying on oneself. 3. Falling into the framework of crisis narrative, believing that one's own in-group is being harmed.

[Ian Hamilton · Rating 3 out of 5]

Serves its purpose: it’s like a cliff notes version of Hannah Arendt and Eric Hoffer, short and without the sociological tedium. The “definitions” of what constitutes what are up for debate; I disagree with some of the author’s assertions, but it remains a good primer. This MIT series is great at decomposing some complex topics for the lay reader, but sociology is more nuanced than science or technology. Not bad!

[Jeff Pedersen · Rating 3 out of 5]

very interesting view on a very complicated issue. there are a lot of moving parts and it makes me realize that this issue is not black and white as i assumed it was. don't get me wrong extremism it self is bad. I don't see any reason to treat another human being as a lower form of life.

[Anthony O'Connor · Rating 3 out of 5]

Ok

A good enough coverage of the basic issues. A bit wordy and jargonish, with no real surprises. Worth a quick read. Even shorter than it looks due to extensive notes. Which you may find a good thing, or a bad thing.

[Lucas Brito · Rating 4 out of 5]

Extremism cover Extremism in outlined terms in order to help people understand what compose extremism thoughts and actions.

I found the book to be very helpful to understand what's going in the world right now.

[Brady Postma · Rating 5 out of 5]

Extremely solid and concise introduction to the scholarship of who extremists are and the common threads of their beliefs and behaviors. Excellent reading for opponents of terrorism, foreign or domestic!

[Thomas Beard · Rating 4 out of 5]

Basic and informative, as I expected. I like Berger's model for defining extremism. He emphasizes identity and complexity, and that gives us something to chew on since *gestures vaguely at everything*.

[helenjvo · Rating 2 out of 5]

This book centers around Tafjel and Turner’s social theory on in-group out-group behavior, but I was hoping to read more about specific ideology than sociology. I know this is supposed to be watered-down and digestible, but man…