1 – Introduction
p.2 – Interpretations of the psychological meaning of clothing are influenced not only by the wearer but also by the observer, as well as by the social and cultural context. Nevertheless, our clothing, like other objects, becomes part of our identity and enables us to align with particular groups while separating us from others.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines psychology as “the scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behaviour in a given context.”
p.3 – “Psychology is concerned with all aspects of behaviour and the thoughts, feelings, and motivations underlying it. It’s about understanding what makes people tick and how this understanding can help us address and solve many of the problems in society.” (British Psychological Society)
Valerie Steele, an American fashion historian, curator and director of the Museum at the Fashion Institute of Technology, as well as editor of the journal, Fashion Theory, defines fashion for the purposes of the journal as the cultural construction of the embodied identity.
p. 4 – As such, fashion encompasses all forms of “self-fashioning,” including street styles and high fashion. Fashion is commonly understood to refer to the prevailing style of dress or behaviour, with the result that it is characterised by change.
Fashion by definition is related to change and is typically associated with younger groups, whereas clothing is used as an umbrella term encompassing functional as well as decorative items. In as this book we use the terms interchangeably for ease of reading.
p.5 – As a cultural phenomenon, fashion is concerned with meanings and symbols which provide instant visual communication to be interpreted and responded to by those we interact with. Although researchers have found that clothing style can convey qualities such as character, sociability, competence and intelligence, often what is conveyed is different from what was intended because communication in any medium is complex.
Because communication involves many brain processes, it is considered psychological. Interpreting the meaning of any message is complex as there are so many opportunities for distortion of the meaning.
Because fashion is inherently concerned with human behaviour, it can be considered a form of psychology.
A Brief History of Fashion
p.6 – Anthropologists argue that humans began wearing clothes in the Neanderthal period (approximately 200,000-30,000 BCE) when they started using tools made of bone rather than stone. Bone tools enabled Neanderthals to soften skins without tearing them, making them more pliable and more able to be made into clothing. Prior to this, humans had decorated their bodies for rituals and as sign of status. As body decorations were hidden once humans started wearing clothing, they began to decorate the clothing, which assumed a decorative as well as a functional purpose. Spun, dyed and knotted wild flax fibres found in caves in Georgia, dating back hundreds of thousands of years, are considered to be remnants of clothing made in response to decreasing amounts of body hair and the resulting need to keep warm.
p.7 – Other accounts claim that the need for clothing as arose as humans moved from Africa to colder climates and settled in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). The Mesopotamians spun and wove wool and made felt and other fibres to produce clothing and footwear such as loin cloths for men and shawls and skirts for women. Even then, wealthy people wore large, elaborate jewellery made of gold and silver and used perfume and cosmetics. According to these accounts, later, as the diaspora spread, the first Egyptian cultures formed along the banks of the Nile. At this time, men and women dressed in light, loose, flowing woollen or linen clothing draped around the body. They cared for and decorated their skin with cosmetics and wore headdresses as status symbols. Similarly, as humans moved to Greece, clothing and jewellery were worn an indicator of status. Evidence suggests that around 2500 to 1600 BCE, the societies who lived in the Indus Valley, in modern-day Pakistan, created jewellery and wore fine woven, dyed and decorated fabrics draped around their body.
p.8 – Elizabethan times (1558-1603), Baroque period (1604-1682), Industrial Revolution (1760-1840), Georgian period (1714-1830), Regency period (1811-1837), Great Depression of 1929-1939,
p.9 – The tragic death of 146 workers trapped by fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York City in 1911 prompted the introduction of legislation requiring regular hours, paid leave, sick benefits and better working conditions. Sadly, more than century later, we are still witnessing disasters at fashion's sweatshops.
p.12 – This fast fashion has changed the way fashion is designed, produced and consumed, to the detriment of all three aspects. Designers are pressured to work much faster and produce more collections, which affects the design process and the mental health of designers. In addition, although many consumers are becoming educated about the environmental problems resulting from the fashion supply chain and manufacturing process, they still tend to buy more than they need. Furthermore, many consumers dispose of unwanted items carelessly, sometimes without ever wearing them.
Humans are involved in every aspect of fashion: design, production, manufacture, advertising and marketing, visual merchandising, retail, consumption and disposal.
How Evidence in Psychology is Derived and Interpreted
p.14 – Applied research tests models theories in situ (as opposed to in the lab) derived from pure research and is used to improve pure research by making it more ecologically valid (applicable beyond the lab situation).
p.15 – Psychology allows us to understand why we do the things we do. This enables us to predict and, ultimately, change behaviour.
Psychologists apply critical thinking to scrutinise methods, results and theories in order to derive a better understanding and eventually establish new theories through iterative hypothesis testing.
2 – Well-Being un the Fashion Industry
Mental Health of Workers in the Fashion Industry
p.25 – The 2008 study investigated the relationship between the creative process and psychopathological and personality characteristics in a sample of 100 artists from a range of disciplines, but not fashion. Results showed that the artists scored higher on deep absorption, focus on present experience, and sense of pleasure and were more open, overly trusting and easily intimate with others compared with the norm. They scored higher on the personality traits to of Openness to Experience and Neuroticism. The former involves six dimensions - active imagination, aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to feelings, preference for variety, willingness to experiment and intellectual curiosity and has positive relationships with creativity, intelligence, knowledge and absorption. This could explain why creative Individuals often find themselves in the psychological state of “flow” during their practice. In addition, people high in openness are motivated to seek new experiences and to engage in self-examination.
p.26 – The fashion industry does not have a particularly good track record for caring about their workers. Many employees are subject to unique pressures that can leave them vulnerable to developing mental health issues or that can exacerbate mental health issues.
p.27 – By definition, fashion is about change. When something becomes fashionable, it is out of fashion. Fashion emphasises novelty and continuous reinvention. Increasingly, designers are required to produce more collections each year. This means there is no respite between collections, and little time to reflect and recover. Therefore, in order to meet industry demands, employees work very long hours, often without breaks, which creates 4 challenging and stressful environment. Ultimately, this impacts the workers' mental health. The fast pace, long hours, competitive nature and high standards demanded in the fashion industries mean that its workers may be more vulnerable to poor mental health than others.
Sadly, many high-profile fashion professionals have reported mental health issues, and others have taken their own lives. In 2010, the British designer Alexander McQueen took his own life at the age of 40.
Yves Saint Laurent's drug use has been well-documented, as has Gialliano’s mental health breakdown. Yet, at the same time as Galliano was suffering, Dior launched a perfume called Addict. This does nothing other than glamorise mental health problems and shows a complete disregard for the potentially devastating professional and psychological outcomes of poor mental health.
p.28 – Marc Jacobs claims he needed rehab after continued drinking and partying with other fashion professionals. Alber Elbaz left Lanvin after 14 years because of the fashion industry's relentless pace, which he claimed crushed creativity and exposed designers to the necessity of finding other ways of keeping up.
p.29 – The fashion industry's unrealistic ideal of physical perfection is at odds with good mental and physical health. Striving for this unrealistic ideal can exacerbate pressures for those working in the industry AS well as for its consumers. As a result, models fare particularly badly in terms of mental health despite the glamorous lifestyle associated with this profession. The requirement for “perfection,” coupled with the demanding social agenda that accompanies working as a model in fashion, makes it easy to understand why to poor mental health and burnout occur.
3 – The Influence of Fashion on Body Image and “Beauty”
p.39 – One problem is that, in reality, highly attractive people are rare, but they are over-represented in fashion, the media and entertainment, where they are portrayed as more desirable, credible and inspirational. This misrepresentation perpetuates the notion that 'what is beautiful is good' because it reinforces the values, norms and ideals of fashion and beauty via fashion and other imagery. The notion that what is beautiful is good combined with the normalised perfect ideal can lead individuals to seek ways to dramatically change their appearance, for example, through cosmetic interventions.
p.43 – Clearly, the cultural ambivalence towards beauty is echoed by that towards ageing. While the male gaze objectifies women, its withdrawal renders them invisible. For women, the loss of beauty and youthfulness, which in contemporary culture are considered synonymous, can lead to a loss of self-definition.
Women, and increasingly men, are targeted by advertisers and marketers to purchase products that promise youthful perfection. The global cosmetics industry continues to grow; its value in 2015 was US$210 billion, and the largest sector is anti-ageing products. Young consumers are persuaded by ageist propaganda against the natural signs of ageing that generates biased perceptions of the impossible horror of getting older and inherent ageism. The rate of growth of the anti-ageing market is evidence of its successful influence. The anti-ageing market is projected to be worth US$191.7 billion by 2019.
p.44 – the concept of 'beauty' in the modern world is problematic for many reasons. Fast fixes from cosmetic interventions tempt individuals to change their appearance so that they conform the stereotype of what is currently considered beautiful. As a result, natural faces and bodies are seen as flawed with abnormalities that can be corrected by cosmetic procedures. “The beautiful woman of the twenty-first century is sculpted surgically from top to bottom, generically neutral, all irregularities regularized, all particularities expunged. She is thus nondisabled, deracialized, and de-ethnicized.”
p.50 – However, research has found that complaining to friends and family about one's appearance, body size, weight and fear of becoming fat can negatively impact feelings about the self. Nevertheless, women of all ages and body sizes feel pressure to be self-critical about their bodies.“
Positive body talk was related to fewer cognitive distortions of the body, high body satisfaction, high self-esteem and friendship quality.
The current ubiquity of visual imagery has contributed to an appearance-oriented culture, which supports a 'pervasive objectification of women’.
p.51 – Objectification is a pervasive of form of sexual oppression in which the individual is viewed as : body for use or consumption by others.
In current culture, the female body is frequently construed at as an object to be looked at and sexually gazed upon. The most subtle way that objectification is enacted is through the gaze, visual inspec- tion of the body. This occurs when a woman's body is perceived as separated from her as a person and regarded as representative of her. In this sense, objectified women are treated as bodies that exist for the use and pleasure of others, which results in persistent body surveillance or monitoring.
In visual media, notwithstanding the obviously problematic issues of the pornography industry, the sexually objectifying gaze also occurs in mainstream films, advertisements,
visual arts, television, music videos, magazines, sports photography and fashion. The most profound psychological effect of objectifying, according to objectification theory's creators, Fredrickson and Roberts, is that it can lead females to treat themselves as objects to be looked at and evaluated.
p.52 – Generally, women report higher levels of appearance anxiety than men, which is evidenced by the millions of dollars they spend each year on cosmetics, surgery and weight reduction programs in an attempt to achieve the ideal. Women with higher appearance anxiety have low self-esteem, high public self-consciousness and high audience and test anxiety. This sort of anxiety is considered to be consequence of self-objectification in a culture which emphasises the importance of appearance for women far more than for men.
4 – Fashion, Self, and Identity
p.56 – Women tend to develop more interdependent selves and relate their self-esteem to the quality of their relationships, whereas men tend to develop more independent selves associated with their self-esteem. The self is socially constructed, and the socialisation process is never complete. Although we develop our self-concept through socialisation, we continually assess it by measuring it against societal and cultural norms and the feedback we receive from others.
Clothing is part of our identity, and fashion provides an obvious means for presenting the self in the most favourable way.
p.58 – Clothing and appearance play an important role in the development, maintenance and modification of the self and are part of the way we view and think about ourselves.
Self-esteem is the evaluative component of self-concept or self-image