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Science and Philosophy
This is a collection of many of Whitehead’s papers that are scattered elsewhere. It was the penultimate book he published, and represents his mature thoughts on many topics. Philosophical Library has done a great service by publishing a representative collection of his writings on the subjects of Philosophy, Education and Science. The portion on Philosophy includes five papers: “Immortality”, “Mathematics and the Good”, “Process and Reality”, “John Dewey and His Influence” and the “Analysis of Meaning.”
The first three chapters consist of Whitehead’s personal reflections illumined by flashes of his lively humor. They are picturesque and amusing. The remainder of the book consists of chapters on Philosophy, Education, and Science. They cover in depth his positions on many scientific and philosophical matters in an extraordinarily unified way. The final section of the book is devoted to excellent surveys of Geometry and Mathematics as well as a paper on Einstein’s theories.
The first three chapters consist of Whitehead’s personal reflections illumined by flashes of his lively humor. They are picturesque and amusing. The remainder of the book consists of chapters on Philosophy, Education, and Science. They cover in depth his positions on many scientific and philosophical matters in an extraordinarily unified way. The final section of the book is devoted to excellent surveys of Geometry and Mathematics as well as a paper on Einstein’s theories.
316 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 1948
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About the author
Alfred North Whitehead
115 books440 followersAlfred North Whitehead, OM FRS (15 February 1861 – 30 December 1947) was an English mathematician and philosopher. He is best known as the defining figure of the philosophical school known as process philosophy, which today has found application to a wide variety of disciplines, including ecology, theology, education, physics, biology, economics, and psychology, among other areas.
In his early career Whitehead wrote primarily on mathematics, logic, and physics. His most notable work in these fields is the three-volume Principia Mathematica (1910–13), which he co-wrote with former student Bertrand Russell. Principia Mathematica is considered one of the twentieth century's most important works in mathematical logic, and placed 23rd in a list of the top 100 English-language nonfiction books of the twentieth century by Modern Library.
Beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s, Whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science, and finally to metaphysics. He developed a comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of western philosophy. Whitehead argued that reality was fundamentally constructed by events rather than substances, and that these events cannot be defined apart from their relations to other events, thus rejecting the theory of independently existing substances. Today Whitehead's philosophical works – particularly Process and Reality – are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy.
Whitehead's process philosophy argues that "there is urgency in coming to see the world as a web of interrelated processes of which we are integral parts, so that all of our choices and actions have consequences for the world around us." For this reason, one of the most promising applications of Whitehead's thought in recent years has been in the area of ecological civilization and environmental ethics pioneered by John B. Cobb, Jr.
Isabelle Stengers wrote that "Whiteheadians are recruited among both philosophers and theologians, and the palette has been enriched by practitioners from the most diverse horizons, from ecology to feminism, practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education." Indeed, in recent decades attention to Whitehead's work has become more widespread, with interest extending to intellectuals in Europe and China, and coming from such diverse fields as ecology, physics, biology, education, economics, and psychology. However, it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that Whitehead's thought drew much attention outside of a small group of American philosophers and theologians, and even today he is not considered especially influential outside of relatively specialized circles.
In recent years, Whiteheadian thought has become a stimulating influence in scientific research.
In physics particularly, Whitehead's thought has been influential, articulating a rival doctrine to Albert Einstein's general relativity. Whitehead's theory of gravitation continues to be controversial. Even Yutaka Tanaka, who suggests that the gravitational constant disagrees with experimental findings, admits that Einstein's work does not actually refute Whitehead's formulation. Also, although Whitehead himself gave only secondary consideration to quantum theory, his metaphysics of events has proved attractive to physicists in that field. Henry Stapp and David Bohm are among those whose work has been influenced by Whitehead.
Whitehead is widely known for his influence in education theory. His philosophy inspired the formation of the Association for Process Philosophy of Education (APPE), which published eleven volumes of a journal titled Process Papers on process philosophy and education from 1996 to 2008. Whitehead's theories on education also led to the formation of new modes of learning and new models of teaching.
In his early career Whitehead wrote primarily on mathematics, logic, and physics. His most notable work in these fields is the three-volume Principia Mathematica (1910–13), which he co-wrote with former student Bertrand Russell. Principia Mathematica is considered one of the twentieth century's most important works in mathematical logic, and placed 23rd in a list of the top 100 English-language nonfiction books of the twentieth century by Modern Library.
Beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s, Whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science, and finally to metaphysics. He developed a comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of western philosophy. Whitehead argued that reality was fundamentally constructed by events rather than substances, and that these events cannot be defined apart from their relations to other events, thus rejecting the theory of independently existing substances. Today Whitehead's philosophical works – particularly Process and Reality – are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy.
Whitehead's process philosophy argues that "there is urgency in coming to see the world as a web of interrelated processes of which we are integral parts, so that all of our choices and actions have consequences for the world around us." For this reason, one of the most promising applications of Whitehead's thought in recent years has been in the area of ecological civilization and environmental ethics pioneered by John B. Cobb, Jr.
Isabelle Stengers wrote that "Whiteheadians are recruited among both philosophers and theologians, and the palette has been enriched by practitioners from the most diverse horizons, from ecology to feminism, practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education." Indeed, in recent decades attention to Whitehead's work has become more widespread, with interest extending to intellectuals in Europe and China, and coming from such diverse fields as ecology, physics, biology, education, economics, and psychology. However, it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that Whitehead's thought drew much attention outside of a small group of American philosophers and theologians, and even today he is not considered especially influential outside of relatively specialized circles.
In recent years, Whiteheadian thought has become a stimulating influence in scientific research.
In physics particularly, Whitehead's thought has been influential, articulating a rival doctrine to Albert Einstein's general relativity. Whitehead's theory of gravitation continues to be controversial. Even Yutaka Tanaka, who suggests that the gravitational constant disagrees with experimental findings, admits that Einstein's work does not actually refute Whitehead's formulation. Also, although Whitehead himself gave only secondary consideration to quantum theory, his metaphysics of events has proved attractive to physicists in that field. Henry Stapp and David Bohm are among those whose work has been influenced by Whitehead.
Whitehead is widely known for his influence in education theory. His philosophy inspired the formation of the Association for Process Philosophy of Education (APPE), which published eleven volumes of a journal titled Process Papers on process philosophy and education from 1996 to 2008. Whitehead's theories on education also led to the formation of new modes of learning and new models of teaching.
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July 11, 2024
A COLLECTION OF ESSAYS FROM THE ENTIRE CAREER OF THE DISTINGUISHED PHILOSOPHER
Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947) was an English mathematician [he is credited as co-writer with Bertrand Russell of Principia Mathematica] and philosopher, best known for developing Process Philosophy.
The first essay is titled, “Autobiographical Notes,” in which he recalls of his early education: “such studies included history---namely, Herodotus, Xenophon, Thucydides, Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus. I can still feel the dullness of Xenophon, Sallust, and Livy. Of course we all know that they are great authors; but this is a candid autobiography.” (Pg. 12) He admits, “I have never been able to read Hegel: I initiated my attempt by studying some remarks of his on mathematics which struck me as complete nonsense. It was foolish of me, but I am not writing to explain my good sense.” (Pg. 14) Later, however, he adds, “it is true that I was influenced by Hegel… But lack of first-hand acquaintance is a very good reason for not endeavoring in print to display any knowledge of Hegel.” (Pg. 124)
Particularly interesting was his description of his relationship with Bertrand Russell: “In 1903 Bertrand Russell published The Principles of Mathematics.. we coalesced to produce a joint work. We hoped that a short period of one year or so would complete the job. Then our horizon extended and, in the course of eight or nine years, Principia Mathematica was produced… Russell had entered the University at the beginning of the eighteen nineties. Like the rest of the world, we enjoyed his brilliance, first as my pupil and then as a colleague and friend. He was a great factor in our lives, during our Cambridge period. But our fundamental points of view---philosophical and sociological---diverged, and so with different interests our collaboration came to a natural end.” (Pg. 17)
He concludes the essay with the statement, “Philosophy is an attempt to express the infinity of the universe in terms of the limitations of language.” (Pg. 21)
In another essay, he reflects, “Those of us who have lived for seventy years, more or less, have seen first the culmination of an epoch, and then its disruption and decay. What is happening when an epoch approaches its culmination? What is happening as it passes toward its decay? Historical writing is cursed with simple characterizations of great events. Historians should study zoology. Naturalists tell us that in the background of our animal natures we harbor the traces of the earlier stages of our animal race.” (Pg. 33)
He states, “the Jews have been a priceless factor in the advance of European civilization. They belong to each nation, and yet they impart a tinge of internationalism. They are eager in respect to concepts relevant to progress, just where we have forgotten them. They have a slight—ever so slight---difference of reaction to those commandments which disclose ideals of perfection. They constitute one of those factors from which each period of history derives its originality.” (Pg. 74-75) He adds, “They supplied ideals beyond conventional habits… Jewish history, beyond all histories, is composed of tragedies.” (Pg. 81)
He asserts, “Logic, conceived as an adequate analysis of the advance of thought, is a fake. It is a superb instrument, but it requires a background of common sense…. My point is that the final outlook of Philosophic thought cannot be based upon the exact statements which form the basis of special sciences. The exactness is a fake.” (Pg. 104)
He recounts Bertrand Russell’s discovery of a contradiction in the logical/mathematical system of Frege ]: “Frege’s answer [to Russell] commenced with the exclamation, ‘Alas, arithmetic totters!’ … But Bertrand Russell, was equal to the occasion… Russell introduced the notion of ‘types’ of entities. According to that doctrine, the notion of number should only be applied to a group of entities of the same type… Russell was perfectly correct. By confining numerical reasoning within one type, all the difficulties are avoided. He had discovered a rule of safety. But unfortunately the rule cannot be expressed apart from the presupposition that the notion of number applies beyond the limitations of the rule… It follows that … the complete explanation of number awaits an understanding of the relevance of the notion of the varieties of multiplicity to the infinitude of things. Even in arithmetic you cannot get rid of a subconscious reference to the unbounded universe.” (Pg. 110-111)
He asserts, “Mathematics is the most powerful technique for the understanding of pattern, and for the analysis of the relationships of patterns… Having regard to the immensity of its subject-matter mathematics, even modern mathematics, is a science in its babyhood. If civilization continues to advance, in the next two thousand years the overwhelming novelty in human thought will be the dominance of mathematical understanding.” (Pg. 117) He concludes this essay with the statement, “The task of philosophy is to reverse this process and thus to exhibit the fusion of analysis with actuality. It follows that Philosophy is not a science.” (Pg. 121)
After residing in America for some time as a lecturer, he observes, “I do feel that if a man is going to do his best he ought to live in America, because there the treatment of any effort is such that it stimulates everything that is eager in one.” (Pg. 123)
He says of his book Process and Reality, “Almost all of ‘Process and Reality’ can be read as an attempt to analyze perishing on the same level as Aristotle’s analysis of becoming. The notion of the prehension of the past means that the past is an element which perishes and thereby remains an element in the state beyond, and thus is objectified. That is the whole notion. If you get a general notion of what is meant by perishing, you will have accomplished an apprehension of what you mean by memory and causality, what you mean when you feel that what we are is of infinite importance, because as we perish we are immortal. That is the one key thought around which the whole development of ‘Process and Reality’ is woven, and in many ways I find that I am in complete agreement with Bradley ].” (Pg. 125-126)
He states, “The besetting sin of philosophers is that, being merely men, they endeavor to survey the universe from the standpoint of gods. There is a pretense of adequate clarity of fundamental ideas. We can never disengage our measure of clarity from a pragmatic sufficiency within occasions of ill-defined limitations. Clarity always means ‘clear enough.’” (Pg. 132)
He observes, “One source of vagueness if deficiency of language. We can see the variations of meaning; although we cannot verbalize them in any decisive, handy manner. Thus we cannot weave into a train of thought what we can apprehend in flashes. We are left with the deceptive identity of the repeated word. Philosophy is largely the effort to lift such insights into verbal expression. For this reason, conventional English is the twin sister to barren thought. Plato had recourse to myth.” (Pg. 136)
He laments, “a decay of individuality finally means the gradual vanishing of aesthetic preferences as effective factors in social behaviors. The aesthetic capacities of the producers and the aesthetic cravings of the buyers are losing any real effectiveness. The canalization of the entire range of industry is in rapid progress. Apart from the dangers of economic prosperity, there is in this decay a loss to happiness. Varied feelings are fading out. We are left with generalized mass emotion.” (Pg. 169)
He asserts, “Logic and Mathematics have given way under the scrutiny of two thousand years. Today we have less apparent ground for certainty than had Plato and Aristotle. The natural rebound from this conclusion is skepticism… There is no understanding, because there is nothing to understand. Complete skepticism involves an aroma of self-destruction. It seems as the negation of experience. It craves for an elegy on the passing of rational knowledge---the beautiful youth drowned in the Sea of Vacuity.” (Pg. 223)
This is a fascinating collection of essays, that will be “must reading” for anyone interested in Whitehead and his thought.
Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947) was an English mathematician [he is credited as co-writer with Bertrand Russell of Principia Mathematica] and philosopher, best known for developing Process Philosophy.
The first essay is titled, “Autobiographical Notes,” in which he recalls of his early education: “such studies included history---namely, Herodotus, Xenophon, Thucydides, Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus. I can still feel the dullness of Xenophon, Sallust, and Livy. Of course we all know that they are great authors; but this is a candid autobiography.” (Pg. 12) He admits, “I have never been able to read Hegel: I initiated my attempt by studying some remarks of his on mathematics which struck me as complete nonsense. It was foolish of me, but I am not writing to explain my good sense.” (Pg. 14) Later, however, he adds, “it is true that I was influenced by Hegel… But lack of first-hand acquaintance is a very good reason for not endeavoring in print to display any knowledge of Hegel.” (Pg. 124)
Particularly interesting was his description of his relationship with Bertrand Russell: “In 1903 Bertrand Russell published The Principles of Mathematics.. we coalesced to produce a joint work. We hoped that a short period of one year or so would complete the job. Then our horizon extended and, in the course of eight or nine years, Principia Mathematica was produced… Russell had entered the University at the beginning of the eighteen nineties. Like the rest of the world, we enjoyed his brilliance, first as my pupil and then as a colleague and friend. He was a great factor in our lives, during our Cambridge period. But our fundamental points of view---philosophical and sociological---diverged, and so with different interests our collaboration came to a natural end.” (Pg. 17)
He concludes the essay with the statement, “Philosophy is an attempt to express the infinity of the universe in terms of the limitations of language.” (Pg. 21)
In another essay, he reflects, “Those of us who have lived for seventy years, more or less, have seen first the culmination of an epoch, and then its disruption and decay. What is happening when an epoch approaches its culmination? What is happening as it passes toward its decay? Historical writing is cursed with simple characterizations of great events. Historians should study zoology. Naturalists tell us that in the background of our animal natures we harbor the traces of the earlier stages of our animal race.” (Pg. 33)
He states, “the Jews have been a priceless factor in the advance of European civilization. They belong to each nation, and yet they impart a tinge of internationalism. They are eager in respect to concepts relevant to progress, just where we have forgotten them. They have a slight—ever so slight---difference of reaction to those commandments which disclose ideals of perfection. They constitute one of those factors from which each period of history derives its originality.” (Pg. 74-75) He adds, “They supplied ideals beyond conventional habits… Jewish history, beyond all histories, is composed of tragedies.” (Pg. 81)
He asserts, “Logic, conceived as an adequate analysis of the advance of thought, is a fake. It is a superb instrument, but it requires a background of common sense…. My point is that the final outlook of Philosophic thought cannot be based upon the exact statements which form the basis of special sciences. The exactness is a fake.” (Pg. 104)
He recounts Bertrand Russell’s discovery of a contradiction in the logical/mathematical system of Frege ]: “Frege’s answer [to Russell] commenced with the exclamation, ‘Alas, arithmetic totters!’ … But Bertrand Russell, was equal to the occasion… Russell introduced the notion of ‘types’ of entities. According to that doctrine, the notion of number should only be applied to a group of entities of the same type… Russell was perfectly correct. By confining numerical reasoning within one type, all the difficulties are avoided. He had discovered a rule of safety. But unfortunately the rule cannot be expressed apart from the presupposition that the notion of number applies beyond the limitations of the rule… It follows that … the complete explanation of number awaits an understanding of the relevance of the notion of the varieties of multiplicity to the infinitude of things. Even in arithmetic you cannot get rid of a subconscious reference to the unbounded universe.” (Pg. 110-111)
He asserts, “Mathematics is the most powerful technique for the understanding of pattern, and for the analysis of the relationships of patterns… Having regard to the immensity of its subject-matter mathematics, even modern mathematics, is a science in its babyhood. If civilization continues to advance, in the next two thousand years the overwhelming novelty in human thought will be the dominance of mathematical understanding.” (Pg. 117) He concludes this essay with the statement, “The task of philosophy is to reverse this process and thus to exhibit the fusion of analysis with actuality. It follows that Philosophy is not a science.” (Pg. 121)
After residing in America for some time as a lecturer, he observes, “I do feel that if a man is going to do his best he ought to live in America, because there the treatment of any effort is such that it stimulates everything that is eager in one.” (Pg. 123)
He says of his book Process and Reality, “Almost all of ‘Process and Reality’ can be read as an attempt to analyze perishing on the same level as Aristotle’s analysis of becoming. The notion of the prehension of the past means that the past is an element which perishes and thereby remains an element in the state beyond, and thus is objectified. That is the whole notion. If you get a general notion of what is meant by perishing, you will have accomplished an apprehension of what you mean by memory and causality, what you mean when you feel that what we are is of infinite importance, because as we perish we are immortal. That is the one key thought around which the whole development of ‘Process and Reality’ is woven, and in many ways I find that I am in complete agreement with Bradley ].” (Pg. 125-126)
He states, “The besetting sin of philosophers is that, being merely men, they endeavor to survey the universe from the standpoint of gods. There is a pretense of adequate clarity of fundamental ideas. We can never disengage our measure of clarity from a pragmatic sufficiency within occasions of ill-defined limitations. Clarity always means ‘clear enough.’” (Pg. 132)
He observes, “One source of vagueness if deficiency of language. We can see the variations of meaning; although we cannot verbalize them in any decisive, handy manner. Thus we cannot weave into a train of thought what we can apprehend in flashes. We are left with the deceptive identity of the repeated word. Philosophy is largely the effort to lift such insights into verbal expression. For this reason, conventional English is the twin sister to barren thought. Plato had recourse to myth.” (Pg. 136)
He laments, “a decay of individuality finally means the gradual vanishing of aesthetic preferences as effective factors in social behaviors. The aesthetic capacities of the producers and the aesthetic cravings of the buyers are losing any real effectiveness. The canalization of the entire range of industry is in rapid progress. Apart from the dangers of economic prosperity, there is in this decay a loss to happiness. Varied feelings are fading out. We are left with generalized mass emotion.” (Pg. 169)
He asserts, “Logic and Mathematics have given way under the scrutiny of two thousand years. Today we have less apparent ground for certainty than had Plato and Aristotle. The natural rebound from this conclusion is skepticism… There is no understanding, because there is nothing to understand. Complete skepticism involves an aroma of self-destruction. It seems as the negation of experience. It craves for an elegy on the passing of rational knowledge---the beautiful youth drowned in the Sea of Vacuity.” (Pg. 223)
This is a fascinating collection of essays, that will be “must reading” for anyone interested in Whitehead and his thought.
November 12, 2018
I got this with the Humble Book Bundle "Brain Wave" as an ebook. I know Whitehead as the co-author of Principia Mathematica with Bertrand Russell, and Russell's "A History of Western Philosophy" was one of my favorites. I was hoping for more of the same. Russell's book is meant as a popular philosophy book, and this is a mix of popular essays as well as ones for professional audiences, and then directly to other academic philosophers, mathematicians, educators, and scientists.
It is split into 4 parts of several essays, and it appears the editors built a ladder of increasing difficulty in each section. I enjoyed the easier essays in each section, and slogged through the later essays, often finding myself checking Twitter or the news or even my email instead. If I had to do it over again, I'd read the essays I enjoyed, then skip to the next part when it started feeling like work.
I think the editors should have added a little context before each section, saying what the context of the essay is, and why it is important. This information is tucked in the acknowledgements page, so it's not omitted. My favorites seem to come from "The Library of Living Philosophers", published 1941, from the Encyclopedia Britannica, and from the Atlantic Monthly.
Part 1 is Personal, and was my favorite. Whitehead was born in Kent in 1861, the same time as the American civil was. "Autobiographical notes" is memories of his school years, and "Memories" a further reflection on his youth. "The Education of an Englishman" is a time capsule of 1870s education. "England and the Narrow Seas" is a reflection on the influence of Europe.
The last essay, "An Appeal to Sanity" is an argument _against_ entering war against Hitler, published in March 1937, two short years before the start of World War 2. I found this essay compelling and fascinating. His reasons were sound, and many of his fears, such as the role of Russia in Eastern Europe and the effect on the Middle East, were realized during the war.
Part 2 is Philosophy. I remember philosophy described as a 2500-year conversation, and this is definitely part of the most recent 100. "Immortality" is an essay on the World and Persistence and Value, and a rejection of Plato. I highlighted: "Creation aims at Value, whereas Value is saved from the futility of abstraction by its impact upon the process of Creation." Take that Plato! It gets harder from there, as he comments on Hegel and Dewey, and gives a little of his process philosophy, but not enough to understand it. I should have started with Wikipedia.
Part 3 is Education, where he advocates for reforms in math and science teaching, an emphasis on experimentation, the inclusion of women in school, and the importance of business schools. I feel he is writing in support of these reforms, rather than originating them, but still it is good to read about these when the ideas were still fresh. "Mathematics and Liberal Education" was an interesting glimpse into how he brings algebraic thinking into other subjects.
Part 4 is Science. "The First Physical Synthesis" is an overview of Galileo and Newton, and what scientific argument looks like at the start and at the middle of a revolution. "The Axioms of Geometry" is an overview of my favorite month of that subject, where alternates of the parallel postulate are enumerated and considered. "Mathematics" is an overview of the whole subject and the areas of study, from the Encylopedia Britannica. "Einstein's Theory" is actually an argument against the theories of space-time, and again gets very abstract in the math.
I think I would have enjoyed the book more if I skipped ahead to the next essay when I got stuck. The essays are stand-alone and do not build on each other, so it easily allows picking and choosing. I really enjoyed some of the essays, but I allowed myself to get stuck on ones that were well over my head.
It is split into 4 parts of several essays, and it appears the editors built a ladder of increasing difficulty in each section. I enjoyed the easier essays in each section, and slogged through the later essays, often finding myself checking Twitter or the news or even my email instead. If I had to do it over again, I'd read the essays I enjoyed, then skip to the next part when it started feeling like work.
I think the editors should have added a little context before each section, saying what the context of the essay is, and why it is important. This information is tucked in the acknowledgements page, so it's not omitted. My favorites seem to come from "The Library of Living Philosophers", published 1941, from the Encyclopedia Britannica, and from the Atlantic Monthly.
Part 1 is Personal, and was my favorite. Whitehead was born in Kent in 1861, the same time as the American civil was. "Autobiographical notes" is memories of his school years, and "Memories" a further reflection on his youth. "The Education of an Englishman" is a time capsule of 1870s education. "England and the Narrow Seas" is a reflection on the influence of Europe.
The last essay, "An Appeal to Sanity" is an argument _against_ entering war against Hitler, published in March 1937, two short years before the start of World War 2. I found this essay compelling and fascinating. His reasons were sound, and many of his fears, such as the role of Russia in Eastern Europe and the effect on the Middle East, were realized during the war.
Part 2 is Philosophy. I remember philosophy described as a 2500-year conversation, and this is definitely part of the most recent 100. "Immortality" is an essay on the World and Persistence and Value, and a rejection of Plato. I highlighted: "Creation aims at Value, whereas Value is saved from the futility of abstraction by its impact upon the process of Creation." Take that Plato! It gets harder from there, as he comments on Hegel and Dewey, and gives a little of his process philosophy, but not enough to understand it. I should have started with Wikipedia.
Part 3 is Education, where he advocates for reforms in math and science teaching, an emphasis on experimentation, the inclusion of women in school, and the importance of business schools. I feel he is writing in support of these reforms, rather than originating them, but still it is good to read about these when the ideas were still fresh. "Mathematics and Liberal Education" was an interesting glimpse into how he brings algebraic thinking into other subjects.
Part 4 is Science. "The First Physical Synthesis" is an overview of Galileo and Newton, and what scientific argument looks like at the start and at the middle of a revolution. "The Axioms of Geometry" is an overview of my favorite month of that subject, where alternates of the parallel postulate are enumerated and considered. "Mathematics" is an overview of the whole subject and the areas of study, from the Encylopedia Britannica. "Einstein's Theory" is actually an argument against the theories of space-time, and again gets very abstract in the math.
I think I would have enjoyed the book more if I skipped ahead to the next essay when I got stuck. The essays are stand-alone and do not build on each other, so it easily allows picking and choosing. I really enjoyed some of the essays, but I allowed myself to get stuck on ones that were well over my head.
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September 6, 2019To be honest, only reason i started reading book was i got it from a humble ebook bundle and only reason i kept it reading until the half was the fact that i did not understand almost anything from what i read and i've never experienced this kind of reading before so the very fact that i did not understand anything kept me going until the half.
Displaying 1 - 3 of 3 reviews