“Language reflects ontology”, S.M.N al-Attas
So far this year, we have completed two sets of Thematic Reading—one on the Prolegomena of al-Attas, and another on Edmund Husserl. The purpose of Thematic Reading is to conduct a detailed examination of a writer’s thoughts and ideas, focusing on their worldview (Weltanschauung) and analyzing the evolution of these ideas in relation to their immediate historical context and the broader history of ideas.
Now, as we move to dissect the ideas of Toshihiko Izutsu, it’s worth acknowledging how challenging it is for anyone, including the scholars, to completely suspend their own presuppositions when reading the works of others. This challenge is especially apparent in the works of Orientalists, such as Wolfson in his history of Islamic Kalam. Throughout his book, Wolfson suggests that Kalam ideas have their roots in either Greek or Indic philosophies. He even goes so far as to claim that the Theologians’ discussions on God’s attributes resemble Christian expositions on the Trinity. This reflects Wolfson’s bias—the presupposition that complex discussions could not have originated from the “camel-riders of Arabia” without prior external influences. In his view, new ideas must always be derivative.
This is precisely where Izutsu’s work comes into play. Through his semantic analysis of key terms in the Qur’an, Izutsu demonstrates that while many of these terms were used in pre-Quranic times, Islam introduced a radical shift in their meanings. This shift signifies that the worldview presented in the Qur’an is a set of entirely new ideas, which cannot be reduced to earlier historical or philosophical influences.
This transformation in meaning helps explain why the people of Makkah were so astonished upon hearing the Qur’an’s verses. Their accusations that the Prophet was merely a poet (kahin) inspired by jinn were discredited by the sheer novelty of the Qur’an’s semantics. The very structure and use of language in the Qur’an serve as signs of its authenticity.
To illustrate the shift in meaning, we can look at how words evolve over time. For example, in medieval times, the word “innocent” was used to describe those with simple minds or mental incapacitation. Today, it is used to describe someone free from guilt or wrongdoing. This demonstrates how words possess both a “basic” meaning and a “relational” meaning.
Consider the word kitab. In its simplest form, it refers to a “book,” but it also carries a “relational halo” of meanings, which can include “knowledge,” “law,” and more. These relational meanings are linked to the original word within a semantic field. Which of these meanings becomes prominent depends on how society uses the word at any given time.
In his analysis, Izutsu provides many examples to show how Islam fundamentally changed the meanings of Arabic vocabulary. Take the word Allah. Before Islam, the Jahilis knew the term as referring to the Creator of the world, the giver of life, and the one who presided over solemn oaths. However, Allah for the Makkans was merely one among many deities. With the advent of Islam, the term Allah came to signify the one and only God, while the other deities were relegated to mere names. As Islamic thought evolved, particularly with the Sufis, Allah came to represent the only true existence, with all other beings existing only in relation to Him. This illustrates how the Qur’an cannot be fully understood through historical reductionism—it presents a new worldview.
Izutsu’s second major achievement in this book is his discussion of revelation, approached through the lens of semantic analysis. According to the principles of semantics, communication is only possible between people who share the same system of signs. Wittgenstein emphasized this communal aspect of language, even denying the possibility of a private language. If someone were to create their own system of signs, they could still teach others how to use it, as communication relies on mutual understanding.
Beyond the need for a shared system of signs, Izutsu addresses the ontological gap between God and man, which makes revelation difficult to explain. The first issue, the medium of communication, is resolved by God’s choice of Arabic as the language of revelation. The second issue, the ontological divide, is addressed by al-Kirmani’s solution: either the recipient of the revelation undergoes a profound personal transformation due to the overwhelming spiritual force of the speaker, or the speaker “descends” to the recipient’s level.
The first solution is evident in many hadiths describing the state of the Prophet during revelation—how he would sweat profusely even on cold days. Ibn Khaldun writes that the human soul momentarily sheds its humanity and assumes an angelic state during the reception of divine inspiration. The second solution, that of “descent,” is mediated by Gabriel, who acts as a linguistic and ontological bridge between the Divine and mortal realms.
In conclusion, Izutsu demonstrates that the Qur’an offers an entirely new Weltanschauung, distinct from previous linguistic and philosophical frameworks. His work refutes reductionist interpretations like Wolfson’s, arguing that Islamic thought cannot be fully explained by external influences. Izutsu also offers a unique perspective on revelation through semantic analysis, deepening our understanding of how the Qur’an communicates divine knowledge.