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Entry Denied: Exclusion and the Chinese Community in America, 1882-1943
In 1882, Congress passed a Chinese exclusion law that barred the entry of Chinese laborers for ten years. The Chinese thus became the first people to be restricted from immigrating into the United States on the basis of race. Exclusion was renewed in 1892 and 1902 and finally made permanent in 1904. Only in 1943 did Congress rescind all the Chinese exclusion laws as a gesture of goodwill towards China, an ally of the United States during World War II. "Entry Denied" is a collection of essays on how the Chinese exclusion laws were implemented and how the Chinese as individuals and as a community in the U.S. mobilized to mitigate the restrictions imposed upon them. It is the first book in English to rely on Chinese language sources to explore the exclusion era in Chinese American history. Sucheng Chan, Professor and Chair of Asian American Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara, is general editor of "Temple's Asian American History and Culture Series".
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286 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 1991
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August 22, 2025
Entry Denied: Exclusion and the Chinese Community in America, 1882-1943, Sucheng Chan (1941-), ed., 1991, 286 pages, ISBN 0877227985, Library-of-Congress E184 C5 E58 1991 Historical Society Library.
An enlightening look at (what little is known of) the experience of Chinese people in America during the period, 1882-1943, when their further immigration was cut off. They fought for their rights in court, and achieved some successes. Anti-Chinese hostility in the U.S. came in part from a perception that Chinese women were prostitutes, partly from working-class Americans not wanting competition, partly from "/those/ people are different."
Because merchants were permitted for six decades while laborers were excluded, Chinese-American society became mostly middle-class or petit bourgeoisie, with few working-class people. Because virtually no Chinese women were admitted then, Chinese men had only second-generation Chinese-American women available as wives, and very few. pp. 137-139.
See Also:
This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1960-1910, Sucheng Chan, 1986, https://www.goodreads.com/review/show...
Songs of Gold Mountain, Marlon K. Hom, ed., 1987, https://www.goodreads.com/review/show...
Coming Man: 19th Century American Perceptions of the Chinese, Philip P. Choy, Lorraine Dong, Marlon K. Hom, eds., 1995.
1841-1900 200,000 Chinese, mostly Cantonese, migrated to California. /This Bittersweet Soil/, p. 37.
1849 Chinese immigration to the U.S. began in numbers during the California gold rush. p. viii. Mostly Cantonese. p. 198.
1850-1910 326,000 Chinese migrated to the U.S. p. 217. Mostly Cantonese. p. xiii.
1852 and 1854 California enacted a discriminatory tax, only on Chinese gold miners. pp. 4, 5.
1854 A San Francisco committee told the aldermen that most of the women in Chinatown were prostitutes. This conviction colored the public perception of, attitude toward, and action against all Chinese women for almost a century. p. 97.
1854 California Supreme Court denied Chinese the right to testify against whites. p. 4.
1857-1858 Financial panic. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_... Economic depressions fueled anti-Chinese hostilities. p. 39.
1860-1880 California was 9% Chinese. /This Bittersweet Soil/, pp. 48-49.
1862 California imposed a monthly tax on Chinese laborers. Lin Sing appealed to the California Supreme Court, which held that only the federal government could single-out a particular nationality for special and extreme hostility. pp. 6-8, 27.
By 1866, 80% of Central Pacific Railroad workers were Chinese. p. 38. Transcontinental line complete, 1869. /This Bittersweet Soil/, p. 39.
1866 California enacted a law to suppress specifically Chinese brothels. The act succeeded only in confining them to limited geographic areas. pp. 97-105.
1868 14th Amendment guarantees all persons within the U.S. the "equal protection of the laws." Western states began enacting laws that, without mentioning Chinese, would nevertheless apply only to them, or could be selectively enforced against them. pp. 8-16, 27, 39, 44, 48.
1868-1869 Burlingame Treaty said that Chinese in the U.S. were to have all the rights, privileges, and immunities of subjects of the most favored nation with which the U.S. had treaty relations. p. 16.
1869 1,056 Chinese women entered the U.S., mostly from Hong Kong. p. 98.
1869-1870 Chinese leaders persuaded Congress to protect Chinese in the Civil Rights Act. Chinese could now testify in court and be free from discriminatory "penalties, taxes, licenses and exactions of every kind." pp. 4-5, 8, 22, 39.
1870 California made it illegal to bring into the state any Asian women except with proof that they came voluntarily and were "of correct habits and good character." p. 98.
1870 7.2% of Chinese in America were female (f/m=1/13, the highest ratio during 1860-1900). The imbalance in the sex ratio would last for more than a century, rather than the few decades normal for immigrant groups. p. 94. Largely due to federal, state, and local government efforts to restrict the immigration of Chinese women. p. 95. In 1870 in San Francisco there were 1,452 prostitutes out of a total Chinese female population of 2,022. In California there were 2,163 prostitutes and 405 probable prostitutes out of 3,797 Chinese females. p. 107.
1873-1879 Financial panic and long depression. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1874 California empowered its commissioner of immigration to refuse entry to anyone he deemed immoral, or to exact larcenous fees from immigrants. The U.S. Supreme Court would invalidate this law in 1876. pp. 98-105.
1875 Congress passed the Page Law, forbidding the entry of Chinese, Japanese, and "Mongolian" contract laborers, women for the purpose of prostitution, and felons. The San Francisco surveyor of customs testified that this law greatly reduced the influx of Chinese women, and nearly eliminated immigration of prostitutes. A San Francisco police crackdown on prostitution in the mid-1870s made traffic in women unprofitable. pp. 105-107.
1878 U.S. Revised Statutes, Section 1993, stated that children born in China of Chinese American fathers are U.S. citizens. p. 83. Officials would later deny such citizens entry, calling their Americanism insufficient. p. 83-84. https://fam.state.gov/fam/08fam/08fam...
1880 San Francisco had 444 prostitutes among 2,052 Chinese females. California had 786 prostitutes and 208 probable prostitutes out of 3,834 Chinese females. p. 107.
1882-1885 Depression and financial panic. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1882-1943 Chinese were excluded from entering the U.S., except merchants, students, diplomats, clergymen, and travelers. Abrogated the Burlingame treaty. pp. viii, 17, 34, 41-43, 60, 97, 109. Journalists, politicians and scholars wrote about Chinese in America only when their presence was controversial. p. ix. Chinese in America suffered discrimination and violence. p. x. The Chinese asserted their rights in court. p. xi and Chapters 1-4. Federal courts heard tens of thousands of Chinese-exclusion cases. The courts ruled on the status of six categories of Chinese women:
* wives of laborers: entry denied, though her husband could reenter until 1888. pp. 110-114.
* wives of merchants: allowed. This class bias ensured that children of Chinese immigrants were predominately of the middle class, not the working class. pp. 114-118, 139.
* women claiming to be U.S-born citizens: allowed, /if/ the judge chose to believe their witnesses. pp. 118-120.
* wives of U.S. citizens: allowed until 1925, /if/ the judge chose to believe their witnesses, /and/ they had no contagious diseases. pp. 120-123, 130.
* daughters born in China of U.S.-citizen fathers (but not mothers): considered to be U.S. citizens, if not married to an Asian, and if the judge or immigration official chose to believe her testimony. pp. 129-132.
* prostitutes: deported, even if U.S. citizens or wives of U.S. citizens. Beginning 1917, alleged prostitutes could be deported after an /executive/ (as distinct from judicial) hearing. Thus began a reign of terror against Chinese women. pp. 132-137.
1882-1891 7,080 Chinese filed habeas corpus petitions in federal court in northern California. These were each heard as individual cases, petitioners presenting any evidence challenging their incarceration. Most of the petitioners succeeded and were permitted to enter the country. pp. 29, 49-51, 58.
1885 There were 567 prostitutes among 1,385 women in the core San Francisco Chinatown bounded by California, Kearney, Broadway, and Stockton streets. p. 107.
1890 3.6% of Chinese in America were female (f/m=1/27, the lowest ratio during 1860-1900). p. 94.
1891 Immigration Act created the office of the superintendent of immigration, to have final say on allowing or denying entry--for all immigrants /except/ Chinese, who were still overseen by the collector of customs. Thus /only/ Chinese had access to federal court to dispute denial of entry. p. 61.
1891-1905 Chinese filed 2,657 habeas corpus petitions in federal court in San Francisco. They were successful in most of them. The commissioner and courts accepted testimony if uncontradicted. pp. 59, 72-73.
1892 Geary Act demanded that all Chinese obtain a certificate proving their right to be in the U.S., otherwise would be deported. The Supreme Court upheld the law, but not its imprisonment at hard labor without trial. p. 18-20.
1893-1894 Financial panic. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1894 Congress passed a law denying court review of entry denials of "aliens," the administrative decision to be final. Only those claiming to have been born in the U.S. could be heard in court if denied entry. p. 76.
1895-1897 Financial panic. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1898 The Supreme Court affirmed that people born in the U.S. are U.S. citizens, even if their parents are Chinese. pp. 20-23, 76.
1900 California was 3% Chinese. /This Bittersweet Soil/, pp. 48-49.
1900 The Supreme Court decided that the admissibility status of a wife or child followed that of the husband or father. p. 61.
1903 Chinese came under the aegis of the Bureau of Immigration, as other immigrants had been since 1891. Thus Chinese lost access to federal court. pp. 61, 77.
1904 The Supreme Court decided that a U.S. citizen had to appeal his denial of entry into the U.S. to the secretary of commerce and labor, before he could file a habeas corpus petition in court. Enforced against Chinese, not Anglo-Saxons. p. 78-79.
1905 The Supreme Court decided that a person of Chinese ancestry, even after having convinced a federal court that he was born in the U.S. and is a U.S. citizen, could nevertheless be deported on an administrator's say-so. pp. 79-81.
1905 Merchants in China boycotted U.S. goods, in response to vicious anti-Chinese policies. This alarmed U.S. businessmen. p. 81.
1907-1908 Financial panic. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1908 The Supreme Court said that immigration officials must allow immigrants to be heard and to present their evidence that they should be admitted. But that officials were nevertheless free to refuse to believe the testimony, and to decide the case incorrectly. Courts were not to hear such cases. p. 81.
1914-1918 World War I.
1918-1919 Post-WWI recession. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1920 12.6% of Chinese in America were female (f/m=1/7). Most of the increase was births, not immigrants. p. 94.
1921 Congress restricted immigration from each country to 3% of the number of people from that country who were in the U.S. in 1910. p. 123.
1922 Supreme Court says that U.S. citizens facing deportation must be permitted to challenge their deportation in court. p. 84.
1922 Congress passed the Cable Act, p. 128-129:
* Foreign-born women would no longer gain citizenship by marrying a U.S. citizen. Asian women continued to be racially ineligible for naturalization.
* Female U.S. citizens would lose their citizenship on marrying an Asian man, racially ineligible for naturalization.
1924 Congress restricted immigration from each country to 2% of the number of people from that country who were in the U.S. in 1890. p. 123. /All/ east and south Asians ("Mongolians") would be denied entry, except returning travelers, professors, clergy, and university students. Wives and minor children of clergy and professors could also enter, as could nonimmigrant government officials with their families and employees, temporary visitors, seamen, and merchants. However, Asian wives of U.S. citizens were denied entry until 1930, and then only if they had been married before the 1924 law. Yet merchants' wives were allowed in. Everyone had to have the correct visa, or entry would be denied. pp. 123-128.
1925 Supreme Court ruled that wives of U.S. citizens could no longer be admitted. p. 130.
1927-1949 Chiang Kai-Shek's Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, or KMT) ruled China. p. xii.
1929-1940 Great Depression. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1940 30.0% of Chinese in America were female (f/m=3/7). p. 94.
1941 U.S. entered WWII.
1943- The U.S. allowed entry of wives of Chinese-American veterans of WWII. p. ix.
1945 WWII ended.
1949- Mao Zedong's Communist Party controls mainland China. The KMT retreated to Taiwan. p. xii.
1949- The U.S. allowed entry of political refugees from Communist China. p. ix.
1950-1953 Korean War
1950 During the Korean War, U.S. president Harry Truman sent warships to the Taiwan Strait to prevent the Communists from invading Taiwan. p. xii. https://history.state.gov/milestones/...
Before 1965, of the more than 50 million people who migrated to the U.S., only about 1 million were from Asia. p. vii.
1965- Chinese immigration of intact families was allowed. p. ix.
1965-1990 About 5 million Asians migrated to the U.S. p. vii.
1970s U.S. normalized relations with the People's Republic of China. p. 197.
1990 About half of the people migrating to the U.S. are from Asia. p. vii.
1991 This book published.
An enlightening look at (what little is known of) the experience of Chinese people in America during the period, 1882-1943, when their further immigration was cut off. They fought for their rights in court, and achieved some successes. Anti-Chinese hostility in the U.S. came in part from a perception that Chinese women were prostitutes, partly from working-class Americans not wanting competition, partly from "/those/ people are different."
Because merchants were permitted for six decades while laborers were excluded, Chinese-American society became mostly middle-class or petit bourgeoisie, with few working-class people. Because virtually no Chinese women were admitted then, Chinese men had only second-generation Chinese-American women available as wives, and very few. pp. 137-139.
See Also:
This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1960-1910, Sucheng Chan, 1986, https://www.goodreads.com/review/show...
Songs of Gold Mountain, Marlon K. Hom, ed., 1987, https://www.goodreads.com/review/show...
Coming Man: 19th Century American Perceptions of the Chinese, Philip P. Choy, Lorraine Dong, Marlon K. Hom, eds., 1995.
1841-1900 200,000 Chinese, mostly Cantonese, migrated to California. /This Bittersweet Soil/, p. 37.
1849 Chinese immigration to the U.S. began in numbers during the California gold rush. p. viii. Mostly Cantonese. p. 198.
1850-1910 326,000 Chinese migrated to the U.S. p. 217. Mostly Cantonese. p. xiii.
1852 and 1854 California enacted a discriminatory tax, only on Chinese gold miners. pp. 4, 5.
1854 A San Francisco committee told the aldermen that most of the women in Chinatown were prostitutes. This conviction colored the public perception of, attitude toward, and action against all Chinese women for almost a century. p. 97.
1854 California Supreme Court denied Chinese the right to testify against whites. p. 4.
1857-1858 Financial panic. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_... Economic depressions fueled anti-Chinese hostilities. p. 39.
1860-1880 California was 9% Chinese. /This Bittersweet Soil/, pp. 48-49.
1862 California imposed a monthly tax on Chinese laborers. Lin Sing appealed to the California Supreme Court, which held that only the federal government could single-out a particular nationality for special and extreme hostility. pp. 6-8, 27.
By 1866, 80% of Central Pacific Railroad workers were Chinese. p. 38. Transcontinental line complete, 1869. /This Bittersweet Soil/, p. 39.
1866 California enacted a law to suppress specifically Chinese brothels. The act succeeded only in confining them to limited geographic areas. pp. 97-105.
1868 14th Amendment guarantees all persons within the U.S. the "equal protection of the laws." Western states began enacting laws that, without mentioning Chinese, would nevertheless apply only to them, or could be selectively enforced against them. pp. 8-16, 27, 39, 44, 48.
1868-1869 Burlingame Treaty said that Chinese in the U.S. were to have all the rights, privileges, and immunities of subjects of the most favored nation with which the U.S. had treaty relations. p. 16.
1869 1,056 Chinese women entered the U.S., mostly from Hong Kong. p. 98.
1869-1870 Chinese leaders persuaded Congress to protect Chinese in the Civil Rights Act. Chinese could now testify in court and be free from discriminatory "penalties, taxes, licenses and exactions of every kind." pp. 4-5, 8, 22, 39.
1870 California made it illegal to bring into the state any Asian women except with proof that they came voluntarily and were "of correct habits and good character." p. 98.
1870 7.2% of Chinese in America were female (f/m=1/13, the highest ratio during 1860-1900). The imbalance in the sex ratio would last for more than a century, rather than the few decades normal for immigrant groups. p. 94. Largely due to federal, state, and local government efforts to restrict the immigration of Chinese women. p. 95. In 1870 in San Francisco there were 1,452 prostitutes out of a total Chinese female population of 2,022. In California there were 2,163 prostitutes and 405 probable prostitutes out of 3,797 Chinese females. p. 107.
1873-1879 Financial panic and long depression. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1874 California empowered its commissioner of immigration to refuse entry to anyone he deemed immoral, or to exact larcenous fees from immigrants. The U.S. Supreme Court would invalidate this law in 1876. pp. 98-105.
1875 Congress passed the Page Law, forbidding the entry of Chinese, Japanese, and "Mongolian" contract laborers, women for the purpose of prostitution, and felons. The San Francisco surveyor of customs testified that this law greatly reduced the influx of Chinese women, and nearly eliminated immigration of prostitutes. A San Francisco police crackdown on prostitution in the mid-1870s made traffic in women unprofitable. pp. 105-107.
1878 U.S. Revised Statutes, Section 1993, stated that children born in China of Chinese American fathers are U.S. citizens. p. 83. Officials would later deny such citizens entry, calling their Americanism insufficient. p. 83-84. https://fam.state.gov/fam/08fam/08fam...
1880 San Francisco had 444 prostitutes among 2,052 Chinese females. California had 786 prostitutes and 208 probable prostitutes out of 3,834 Chinese females. p. 107.
1882-1885 Depression and financial panic. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1882-1943 Chinese were excluded from entering the U.S., except merchants, students, diplomats, clergymen, and travelers. Abrogated the Burlingame treaty. pp. viii, 17, 34, 41-43, 60, 97, 109. Journalists, politicians and scholars wrote about Chinese in America only when their presence was controversial. p. ix. Chinese in America suffered discrimination and violence. p. x. The Chinese asserted their rights in court. p. xi and Chapters 1-4. Federal courts heard tens of thousands of Chinese-exclusion cases. The courts ruled on the status of six categories of Chinese women:
* wives of laborers: entry denied, though her husband could reenter until 1888. pp. 110-114.
* wives of merchants: allowed. This class bias ensured that children of Chinese immigrants were predominately of the middle class, not the working class. pp. 114-118, 139.
* women claiming to be U.S-born citizens: allowed, /if/ the judge chose to believe their witnesses. pp. 118-120.
* wives of U.S. citizens: allowed until 1925, /if/ the judge chose to believe their witnesses, /and/ they had no contagious diseases. pp. 120-123, 130.
* daughters born in China of U.S.-citizen fathers (but not mothers): considered to be U.S. citizens, if not married to an Asian, and if the judge or immigration official chose to believe her testimony. pp. 129-132.
* prostitutes: deported, even if U.S. citizens or wives of U.S. citizens. Beginning 1917, alleged prostitutes could be deported after an /executive/ (as distinct from judicial) hearing. Thus began a reign of terror against Chinese women. pp. 132-137.
1882-1891 7,080 Chinese filed habeas corpus petitions in federal court in northern California. These were each heard as individual cases, petitioners presenting any evidence challenging their incarceration. Most of the petitioners succeeded and were permitted to enter the country. pp. 29, 49-51, 58.
1885 There were 567 prostitutes among 1,385 women in the core San Francisco Chinatown bounded by California, Kearney, Broadway, and Stockton streets. p. 107.
1890 3.6% of Chinese in America were female (f/m=1/27, the lowest ratio during 1860-1900). p. 94.
1891 Immigration Act created the office of the superintendent of immigration, to have final say on allowing or denying entry--for all immigrants /except/ Chinese, who were still overseen by the collector of customs. Thus /only/ Chinese had access to federal court to dispute denial of entry. p. 61.
1891-1905 Chinese filed 2,657 habeas corpus petitions in federal court in San Francisco. They were successful in most of them. The commissioner and courts accepted testimony if uncontradicted. pp. 59, 72-73.
1892 Geary Act demanded that all Chinese obtain a certificate proving their right to be in the U.S., otherwise would be deported. The Supreme Court upheld the law, but not its imprisonment at hard labor without trial. p. 18-20.
1893-1894 Financial panic. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1894 Congress passed a law denying court review of entry denials of "aliens," the administrative decision to be final. Only those claiming to have been born in the U.S. could be heard in court if denied entry. p. 76.
1895-1897 Financial panic. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1898 The Supreme Court affirmed that people born in the U.S. are U.S. citizens, even if their parents are Chinese. pp. 20-23, 76.
1900 California was 3% Chinese. /This Bittersweet Soil/, pp. 48-49.
1900 The Supreme Court decided that the admissibility status of a wife or child followed that of the husband or father. p. 61.
1903 Chinese came under the aegis of the Bureau of Immigration, as other immigrants had been since 1891. Thus Chinese lost access to federal court. pp. 61, 77.
1904 The Supreme Court decided that a U.S. citizen had to appeal his denial of entry into the U.S. to the secretary of commerce and labor, before he could file a habeas corpus petition in court. Enforced against Chinese, not Anglo-Saxons. p. 78-79.
1905 The Supreme Court decided that a person of Chinese ancestry, even after having convinced a federal court that he was born in the U.S. and is a U.S. citizen, could nevertheless be deported on an administrator's say-so. pp. 79-81.
1905 Merchants in China boycotted U.S. goods, in response to vicious anti-Chinese policies. This alarmed U.S. businessmen. p. 81.
1907-1908 Financial panic. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1908 The Supreme Court said that immigration officials must allow immigrants to be heard and to present their evidence that they should be admitted. But that officials were nevertheless free to refuse to believe the testimony, and to decide the case incorrectly. Courts were not to hear such cases. p. 81.
1914-1918 World War I.
1918-1919 Post-WWI recession. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1920 12.6% of Chinese in America were female (f/m=1/7). Most of the increase was births, not immigrants. p. 94.
1921 Congress restricted immigration from each country to 3% of the number of people from that country who were in the U.S. in 1910. p. 123.
1922 Supreme Court says that U.S. citizens facing deportation must be permitted to challenge their deportation in court. p. 84.
1922 Congress passed the Cable Act, p. 128-129:
* Foreign-born women would no longer gain citizenship by marrying a U.S. citizen. Asian women continued to be racially ineligible for naturalization.
* Female U.S. citizens would lose their citizenship on marrying an Asian man, racially ineligible for naturalization.
1924 Congress restricted immigration from each country to 2% of the number of people from that country who were in the U.S. in 1890. p. 123. /All/ east and south Asians ("Mongolians") would be denied entry, except returning travelers, professors, clergy, and university students. Wives and minor children of clergy and professors could also enter, as could nonimmigrant government officials with their families and employees, temporary visitors, seamen, and merchants. However, Asian wives of U.S. citizens were denied entry until 1930, and then only if they had been married before the 1924 law. Yet merchants' wives were allowed in. Everyone had to have the correct visa, or entry would be denied. pp. 123-128.
1925 Supreme Court ruled that wives of U.S. citizens could no longer be admitted. p. 130.
1927-1949 Chiang Kai-Shek's Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, or KMT) ruled China. p. xii.
1929-1940 Great Depression. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_...
1940 30.0% of Chinese in America were female (f/m=3/7). p. 94.
1941 U.S. entered WWII.
1943- The U.S. allowed entry of wives of Chinese-American veterans of WWII. p. ix.
1945 WWII ended.
1949- Mao Zedong's Communist Party controls mainland China. The KMT retreated to Taiwan. p. xii.
1949- The U.S. allowed entry of political refugees from Communist China. p. ix.
1950-1953 Korean War
1950 During the Korean War, U.S. president Harry Truman sent warships to the Taiwan Strait to prevent the Communists from invading Taiwan. p. xii. https://history.state.gov/milestones/...
Before 1965, of the more than 50 million people who migrated to the U.S., only about 1 million were from Asia. p. vii.
1965- Chinese immigration of intact families was allowed. p. ix.
1965-1990 About 5 million Asians migrated to the U.S. p. vii.
1970s U.S. normalized relations with the People's Republic of China. p. 197.
1990 About half of the people migrating to the U.S. are from Asia. p. vii.
1991 This book published.
August 21, 2009
This is an old favorite I read over ten years and found the need to revisit. At the time of its publications, it was one of the few books that openly discussed the exclusion act and racism against the Chinese community. It remains a great source of information.
Displaying 1 - 2 of 2 reviews