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A Crisis of Peace: George Washington, the Newburgh Conspiracy, and the Fate of the American Revolution
On March 15, 1783, General George Washington addressed a group of angry officers in an effort to rescue the American Revolution from mutiny at the highest level.
After the British surrender at Yorktown, the American Revolution still blazed on, and as peace was negotiated in Europe, grave problems surfaced at home. The government was broke, paying its debts with loans from France. Political rivalry among the states paralyzed Congress. The army’s officers, encamped near Newburgh, New York, and restless without an enemy to fight, brooded over a civilian population seemingly indifferent to their sacrifices.
The result was the Newburgh Affair, a mysterious event in which Continental Army officers, disgruntled by a lack of pay and pensions, may have collaborated with nationalist-minded politicians such as Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Robert Morris to pressure Congress and the states to approve new taxes and strengthen the central government.
Fearing what his men might do with their passions inflamed, Washington averted the crisis, but with the nation’s problems persisting, the officers ultimately left the army disappointed, their low opinion of their civilian countrymen confirmed.
A Crisis of Peace provides a fresh look at the end of the American Revolution while speaking to issues that concern us still: the fragility of civil-military relations, how even victorious wars end ambiguously, and what veterans and civilians owe each other.
After the British surrender at Yorktown, the American Revolution still blazed on, and as peace was negotiated in Europe, grave problems surfaced at home. The government was broke, paying its debts with loans from France. Political rivalry among the states paralyzed Congress. The army’s officers, encamped near Newburgh, New York, and restless without an enemy to fight, brooded over a civilian population seemingly indifferent to their sacrifices.
The result was the Newburgh Affair, a mysterious event in which Continental Army officers, disgruntled by a lack of pay and pensions, may have collaborated with nationalist-minded politicians such as Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Robert Morris to pressure Congress and the states to approve new taxes and strengthen the central government.
Fearing what his men might do with their passions inflamed, Washington averted the crisis, but with the nation’s problems persisting, the officers ultimately left the army disappointed, their low opinion of their civilian countrymen confirmed.
A Crisis of Peace provides a fresh look at the end of the American Revolution while speaking to issues that concern us still: the fragility of civil-military relations, how even victorious wars end ambiguously, and what veterans and civilians owe each other.
400 pages, Hardcover
First published December 3, 2019
9 people are currently reading
172 people want to read
About the author
David Head
9 books11 followersDavid Head is an historian, author, and lecturer of history at the University of Central Florida in Orlando. Originally from Western New York, he received his B.A. in history from Niagara University and his Ph.D. from the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York.
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Displaying 1 - 14 of 14 reviews
April 11, 2025
After previously undertaking a fascinating account of Spanish and American privateering exploits in the Early Republic, historian David Head sticks to the same era but focuses on a far more dramatic and serious event that had profound effects on the infant nation’s prospects, morale, and livelihood. Much like other internal controversies of the Revolutionary War—such as the Conway Cabal—the Newburgh Conspiracy that followed merely two years after Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown could have had disastrous effects on the outcome of treaty negotiations and the overall notion of peace, and Head sheds new light and insight on this remarkable event. With a timeline that follows each of the steps leading up to Washington’s famous Newburgh address, Head proves to counter the idea that this was indeed an actual conspiracy—in which he attempts to set the record straight for those interested or unfamiliar with the event.
Beginning with the British capitulation at Yorktown, Head follows General Washington’s subsequent meanderings into celebratory dinners, elegant ball dances, and congressional meetings—all the while addressing and introducing each of the prominent figures who would have some form of influence or acting hand at Newburgh. He gives succinct backgrounds of future Early Republic influencers and leaders such as Gouverneur and Robert Morris (no relation), Timothy Pickering, Alexander McDougall, and Benjamin Lincoln. Early on, it’s quite remarkable to see the exemplary level of detail and sources that Head has researched and added into the text, from the fundamentals of Continental paper money, to his calculation of the various rations, grog, milk, and livestock butchered for the duration of the war—indeed, the consumption of 63 million bottles of beer was quite a stunning estimation to behold.
Noting the discrepancy between the idea of a limited government made up of individual states, Head defines the so-called nationalists of the 1780s as “Continentalists”—a body of political leaders who urged the call for unity among the states only after recognizing the failings of these rogue and independent-minded colonies during the American Revolution. Similar to Alan Taylor’s exemplary subchapters, Head brilliantly implements chapter breaks—a convenient and rarely utilized technique that allows his audience to step back from the macro scale of information, and process the facts and details with ease. As the war faded to a close in 1782 with the British withdrawal from Charleston, Head points to several factors that led to the growing unrest of Continental officers. This includes the uncertainty of pensions, ever-increasing debt, lack of pay, meager and stale rations of food and drink, and overall idleness in conjunction with dishonorable and meaningless tasks:
Finally, the officers took umbrage at the way civilians resented them for wanting half pay pensions. Congress had promised them half pay for life as part of their compensation. It was a reasonable recompense for men who had risked their lives in defense of their country and who, by giving everything they had to their country—their time, talent, and treasure, their bodies and souls—would be unlikely to find good employment after the war. Men who had lent only money to the cause expected a return on their investment, a reward for what they had risked. The officers said they wanted a similar annuity for their investment of “blood and service to the public.”
As Mcdougall, Brook, and Ogden—the trio of officers entrusted with delivering the qualms and frustrations of the bulk of the army—inform members of Congress at Newburgh of the general demands and dreary mood of the soldiery, both Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton’s unique yet comparative roles as nationalists come into focus. Indeed, even this early on Hamilton was already showing his future Federalist stripes and sway over Washington in the form of a letter full of gossip and fearmongering. However, Head steps back from alleging his actions as Machiavellian or the “smoking gun” of the Conspiracy—and rather views Hamilton’s cunning attempts to persuade Washington in backing the army’s call for relief as a last resort and best-case scenario. To Hamilton’s chagrin, Washington goes headfirst into action upon receiving the “anonymous” letter of a cabal of officers—penned by John Armstrong, Jr., an officer and son to one of Washington’s faithful generals—which Head brilliantly explains was meant to fan the flames and spur Congress in agreeing to their demands.
Often remembered from Washington’s Newburgh Address is his emotional and well-delivered ‘spectacles’ line, yet Head fortunately covers the introduction of his speech to the men at his disposal—before delving into a fascinating investigation of whether or not the reading glasses and subsequent quip were each expertly planned from the outset. This is a familiar theme in Head’s work, and he aptly addresses each alleged conspirator and the rumors that led to their supposed involvement with due diligence. Following a detailed look into the rather urgent matter of printing money for the soldiers as well as the idealistic intentions—and shortcomings—of the newly established Society of the Cincinnati, Head concludes with a concise summary of the aftermath of the alleged conspiracy, and how it quickly snowballed from a high-stakes drama into a fortunately bloodless finale. While there are a few instances of Head using rather modern and flashy dialect, these shortcomings are easily eclipsed by the scholarly level of engagement and research found throughout. Over twenty-five illustrations are provided, including photographs taken by the author, as well as an index.
Beginning with the British capitulation at Yorktown, Head follows General Washington’s subsequent meanderings into celebratory dinners, elegant ball dances, and congressional meetings—all the while addressing and introducing each of the prominent figures who would have some form of influence or acting hand at Newburgh. He gives succinct backgrounds of future Early Republic influencers and leaders such as Gouverneur and Robert Morris (no relation), Timothy Pickering, Alexander McDougall, and Benjamin Lincoln. Early on, it’s quite remarkable to see the exemplary level of detail and sources that Head has researched and added into the text, from the fundamentals of Continental paper money, to his calculation of the various rations, grog, milk, and livestock butchered for the duration of the war—indeed, the consumption of 63 million bottles of beer was quite a stunning estimation to behold.
Noting the discrepancy between the idea of a limited government made up of individual states, Head defines the so-called nationalists of the 1780s as “Continentalists”—a body of political leaders who urged the call for unity among the states only after recognizing the failings of these rogue and independent-minded colonies during the American Revolution. Similar to Alan Taylor’s exemplary subchapters, Head brilliantly implements chapter breaks—a convenient and rarely utilized technique that allows his audience to step back from the macro scale of information, and process the facts and details with ease. As the war faded to a close in 1782 with the British withdrawal from Charleston, Head points to several factors that led to the growing unrest of Continental officers. This includes the uncertainty of pensions, ever-increasing debt, lack of pay, meager and stale rations of food and drink, and overall idleness in conjunction with dishonorable and meaningless tasks:
Finally, the officers took umbrage at the way civilians resented them for wanting half pay pensions. Congress had promised them half pay for life as part of their compensation. It was a reasonable recompense for men who had risked their lives in defense of their country and who, by giving everything they had to their country—their time, talent, and treasure, their bodies and souls—would be unlikely to find good employment after the war. Men who had lent only money to the cause expected a return on their investment, a reward for what they had risked. The officers said they wanted a similar annuity for their investment of “blood and service to the public.”
As Mcdougall, Brook, and Ogden—the trio of officers entrusted with delivering the qualms and frustrations of the bulk of the army—inform members of Congress at Newburgh of the general demands and dreary mood of the soldiery, both Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton’s unique yet comparative roles as nationalists come into focus. Indeed, even this early on Hamilton was already showing his future Federalist stripes and sway over Washington in the form of a letter full of gossip and fearmongering. However, Head steps back from alleging his actions as Machiavellian or the “smoking gun” of the Conspiracy—and rather views Hamilton’s cunning attempts to persuade Washington in backing the army’s call for relief as a last resort and best-case scenario. To Hamilton’s chagrin, Washington goes headfirst into action upon receiving the “anonymous” letter of a cabal of officers—penned by John Armstrong, Jr., an officer and son to one of Washington’s faithful generals—which Head brilliantly explains was meant to fan the flames and spur Congress in agreeing to their demands.
Often remembered from Washington’s Newburgh Address is his emotional and well-delivered ‘spectacles’ line, yet Head fortunately covers the introduction of his speech to the men at his disposal—before delving into a fascinating investigation of whether or not the reading glasses and subsequent quip were each expertly planned from the outset. This is a familiar theme in Head’s work, and he aptly addresses each alleged conspirator and the rumors that led to their supposed involvement with due diligence. Following a detailed look into the rather urgent matter of printing money for the soldiers as well as the idealistic intentions—and shortcomings—of the newly established Society of the Cincinnati, Head concludes with a concise summary of the aftermath of the alleged conspiracy, and how it quickly snowballed from a high-stakes drama into a fortunately bloodless finale. While there are a few instances of Head using rather modern and flashy dialect, these shortcomings are easily eclipsed by the scholarly level of engagement and research found throughout. Over twenty-five illustrations are provided, including photographs taken by the author, as well as an index.
December 19, 2020
Narrated by Alex Boyles and acquired by the National Library for the Blind and Print Disabled's BARD app.
The politics of war never really change. Having worked just a couple blocks away from the troop's Cantonment in New Windsor, learning more fascinated me.
Kudos to Mr.Boyles for pronouncing Baron von Steuben's name correctly.
The politics of war never really change. Having worked just a couple blocks away from the troop's Cantonment in New Windsor, learning more fascinated me.
Kudos to Mr.Boyles for pronouncing Baron von Steuben's name correctly.
December 9, 2025
An interesting book about the final 2 years of the revolutionary war. Of course no major battles were fought after Yorktown, but the battle fought during that time was with Congress trying to get the citizen soldiers paid what was owned them. Spoiler Alert - they never did get the entire amount owed them for their service to bring liberty to the country.
The book looks at the various difficulties surrounding the issue and the key players involved in trying to resolve the problem. The State’s mistrust of a central government, not wanting to issue (impost) or pay taxes for anything, Congress’ powerlessness to drive the States to contribute, leaders (Like Hamilton and the Morrisses) wanting to use the debt owed the army (and other creditors) to make a stronger centralized/Federal government. The author details all of these items and the individuals that play the prominent role during this crisis. He examines the purported “Newburgh Conspiracy” with fresh eyes to see if it really was a concerted effort by the army, with support or encouragement by certain Philadelphia persons, to get the government to pay its debt to the soldiers via a threat by the army not to fight (if necessary), leave, or maybe even march against the government.
The book looks at the various difficulties surrounding the issue and the key players involved in trying to resolve the problem. The State’s mistrust of a central government, not wanting to issue (impost) or pay taxes for anything, Congress’ powerlessness to drive the States to contribute, leaders (Like Hamilton and the Morrisses) wanting to use the debt owed the army (and other creditors) to make a stronger centralized/Federal government. The author details all of these items and the individuals that play the prominent role during this crisis. He examines the purported “Newburgh Conspiracy” with fresh eyes to see if it really was a concerted effort by the army, with support or encouragement by certain Philadelphia persons, to get the government to pay its debt to the soldiers via a threat by the army not to fight (if necessary), leave, or maybe even march against the government.
June 24, 2021
In his book, A Crisis of Peace: George Washington, the Newburgh Conspiracy, and the Fate of the American Revolution author David Head provides the reader with a fairly complete outline of the persons, events, and timeline of what has come to be known by many historians as 'The Newburgh Conspiracy'. The high points of Head's work are twofold. First he gives the reader a very inciteful look at the frustrations of the Continental Army from General Washington on down to the common soldier insofar as the inability, if not incompetence of Congress to pay the men who secured their liberty ! The second success of the author in this work is the debunking, in my opinion, of the entire idea of a Newburgh Conspiracy. David Head illustrates the random, coincidental, and indeed, logical progression of events that typically have been assembled, collated, and labeled a conspiracy. Overall I would recommend this book to persons wanting a view of the reality of the American Revolution's conclusion as opposed to the common 'Yankee Doodle Dandy' perspective of most Americans.
March 5, 2025
I must admit this book was not at all what I expected. I guess I was expecting more of a military study. This book was more about the economics of the last two years of the Revolutionary War. The soldiers had not been paid in a long time and were fairly disgruntled about it. There was even talk of a march on Philadelphia to force payment of what they were owed.
General Washington got wind of the soldier’s unhappiness and managed to put an end to the idea. And some of the book covers this aspect of the story as well as Washington’s part in it. But more than I expected was about the young republics shaky finances. Not exactly something I would normally expect to read. But the book does cover the Continental Army and what it did after the Battle of Yorktown.
Considering the topic the author presents a fairly readable volume. And it’s not an especially long book so I was able to finish it fairly easily. All things considered it is a decent read and would recommend it to anyone interested in the end of the Revolutionary War.
General Washington got wind of the soldier’s unhappiness and managed to put an end to the idea. And some of the book covers this aspect of the story as well as Washington’s part in it. But more than I expected was about the young republics shaky finances. Not exactly something I would normally expect to read. But the book does cover the Continental Army and what it did after the Battle of Yorktown.
Considering the topic the author presents a fairly readable volume. And it’s not an especially long book so I was able to finish it fairly easily. All things considered it is a decent read and would recommend it to anyone interested in the end of the Revolutionary War.
March 2, 2020
Tackling the two years between the surrender at Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris, "A Crisis of Peace" discusses the pros and cons of pensions, fears and uncertainties of soldiers and citizens alike, and the Newburgh Conspiracy. So far in my reading of the history of the founding of America, I have followed troops fighting in the war, and I have followed politicians like John Adams and Thomas Jefferson who were more focused on the documents and negotiations of the time rather than the "boots on the ground" experience. This was my first venture into the gap years from a soldier's perspective, and it definitely added a new point of reference to my growing knowledge of the time period.
Knowing David Head is a college professor, this book reads like a college professor lecturing to his students. He translates letters and documents into modern lingo, and he adds jokes to keep it light and engaging like he's speaking to a younger audience. Hearing him speak in person about this topic before reading the book definitely helped me to read his jokes with his style of humor. A nice, quick read.
Knowing David Head is a college professor, this book reads like a college professor lecturing to his students. He translates letters and documents into modern lingo, and he adds jokes to keep it light and engaging like he's speaking to a younger audience. Hearing him speak in person about this topic before reading the book definitely helped me to read his jokes with his style of humor. A nice, quick read.
February 14, 2024
Head provides substantial evidence and analysis to support his position regarding the Newburgh Conspiracy. His narrative weaves through all the essential players and and factions in a way to give the reader a ring side seat to the evolving events. With just enough context to give the reader an understanding of the key historical figures relationships to each other, Head is able to tell his story grounded in solid analysis of the primary sources left by the Founders. I felt much life after reading McCullough’s 1776, how did we ever survive the War and more importantly the first few years of peace?
April 3, 2021
Excellent book from a very engaging writer. I knew very little of the Newburgh Conspiracy, one could say I had a conspiratorial view as did many who lived the event. David Heads history of the event brought it into clarity, perspective and in relationship to the political realities and personalities of the times. Highly recommended. A nice sense of humor and asides as well.
February 15, 2025
I love a good Washington book, and this is a good one. It displays how Washington, through his own commitment to the idea of an American nation, preserved that idea in the face of the failure of others. He was in Indespenible Man, in war and peace
February 16, 2020
George had his hands filled during the last two years of quasi-peace with the British, waiting for the peace treaty with the disillusioned English people.
April 11, 2020
Enjoyable read, fast-paced and well-written. Tells an important story of a moment in the Revolution that is frequently overlooked or dismissed and argues convincingly that it deserves more attention.
January 19, 2022
Just an extended take on a moment that every Washington biographer fawns over.
November 22, 2023
A well written history of American soldiers at the end of the Revolutionary War and a crisis over their lack of pay. Both the right level of detail and overview.
May 25, 2021
Excellent work detailing the "alleged" Newburgh Conspiracy. Typical bureaucratic messes, so true then, so true today.
Displaying 1 - 14 of 14 reviews