Trail of Footprints: A History of Indigenous Maps from Viceregal Mexico

Recovering Languages and Literacies of the Americas

by Alex Hidalgo

Trail of Footprints offers an intimate glimpse into the commission, circulation, and use of indigenous maps from colonial Mexico. A collection of sixty largely unpublished maps from the late sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries and made in the southern region of Oaxaca anchors an analysis of the way ethnically diverse societies produced knowledge in colonial settings. Mapmaking, proposes Hidalgo, formed part of an epistemological shift tied to the negotiation of land and natural resources between the region’s Spanish, Indian, and mixed-race communities. The craft of making maps drew from social memory, indigenous and European conceptions of space and ritual, and Spanish legal practices designed to adjust spatial boundaries in the New World. Indigenous mapmaking brought together a distinct coalition of social actors—Indian leaders, native towns, notaries, surveyors, judges, artisans, merchants, muleteers, collectors, and painters—who participated in the critical observation of the region’s geographic features. Demand for maps reconfigured technologies associated with the making of colorants, adhesives, and paper that drew from Indian botany and experimentation, trans-Atlantic commerce, and Iberian notarial culture. The maps in this study reflect a regional perspective associated with Oaxaca’s decentralized organization, its strategic position amidst a network of important trade routes that linked central Mexico to Central America, and the ruggedness and diversity of its physical landscape.

Genres: History, Nonfiction

184 pages, Paperback

Published July 12, 2019

Reviews

[Sarah · Rating 4 out of 5]

Oaxaca, currently, is a city in southwest Mexico known for its food and beautiful landscapes. Oaxaca was the home of many early maps in ancient Mexican history. In the book Trail of Footprints by Alex Hidalgo, the creation and influence of these maps is examined. Sixty maps are utilized in Trail of Footprints, and 5 distinct areas are walked through. These maps played a large role in the advancement of society in Colonial Mexico
Trail of Footprints by Alex Hidalgo considers the many maps and manuscripts made by the people in the Oaxaca region in what is now current day Mexico. These maps tell many stories of the people in that region. Hidalgo proposes that the knowledge from these maps is tied to land negotiation, art creation, and ritual. The creation of these maps called for many people of varying occupations to gather data, chart territory, and produce a final product. Alex Hidalgo dives into both the history of the artifacts and the impacts that they had on society then and now.
This book is broken into four chapters with an introduction and epilogue. The four chapters are Patrons, Painters, Materials, and Authentication. The chapter ‘Painters’ is an interesting dive into the people that create the maps Hidalgo is referencing. A painter may not be exactly as it is understood today, though. Hidalgo examines the definition of ‘painter’ in colonial Mexico. A painter, Hidalgo states, is “he whose craft is to write” (pg. 35*). A painter is akin to a scribe, according to Trail of Footprints. Hidalgo continues his statement to say that the craft of pictorial representations is not gone, but that alphabet writing had a huge impact on Colonial Mexico and is seen as a main career choice for the people who know how to write. For this, mapmakers and painters were celebrated members of society.
The maps of the time have given an opportunity for scholars and historians to learn about the society of colonial Mexico. Land negotiations was a constant conflict in this region, as the Spanish and Natives could rarely agreed on what land was theirs. In one story, a Spanish man was adamant that the land on the side of his house was his, but there was a stone monument on the proposed property line that belonged to the Indigenous peoples. The Spanish authorities sided with the Indigenous people in many cases, including this one. Maps from Oaxaca corroborate this tale of events. There was a trend of authorities deciding in Native’s favor for years after the initial Spanish encounter, but the tide does turn eventually. This shift is also documented in the maps from the region.
Hidalgo uses many forms of sources in his writing, including written and oral history, primary and secondary sources, and illustrations both of maps and of different subject matters. The research presented is obviously very well conducted, and it is relayed in simple ways that are understandable even to people who are not well-versed in Mexican history. Hidalgo leads readers down a road that passes through five areas of Colonial Mexico. These areas are carefully selected, examined, researched, and definitely enlightening to read about.
Trail of Footprints is both a short and easy read that is packed full of interesting and captivating information. Each page presents relevant knowledge in an extremely digestible writing style that keeps the reader enticed in the rich history of colonial Mexico. There were times in the narrative that it felt disconnected from the main idea of the reference map, but the delve into information was necessary and warranted when desiring the full picture that the map had on culture. This disconnect is not pronounced and does not negatively affect the reading experience, but it is noticeable when determining a main theme of the book. However, the presentation of history that creates this disconnect is insightful and is always tied back to the main idea in the end. Overall, the information presented in Trail of Footprints is conclusive and decisive in nature, which aids in the book’s easy reading nature.
Throughout Trail of Footprints, it’s easy to wonder about the lives of the people that made these artifacts being studied by Hidalgo. It is the mark of a good text that it encourages readers to seek out other resources, and Alex Hidalgo definitely does that. Through his engaging writing, relevant research, and varied sources, Hidalgo emphasizes the importance that maps, and cartography played in the advancement of society in Colonial Mexico. He answers essential questions about land negotiation, recognition, legal status, and geography.

*Page numbers are based off the Kindle version of Trail of Footprints by Alex Hidalgo and may not match any print version of the same title.

This review was written for a HIST 324 professional book review a Ball State University

[Lauren · Rating 4 out of 5]

Alex Hidalgo’s Trail of Footprints: A History of Indigenous Maps of Viceigral Mexico analyzes around 60 Indigenous maps that were created between the years of 1573 and 1778 in the region of Oaxaca which is located in Southwest Mexico. Hidalgo studies these maps from the reason they were created to how they influenced the region. Hidalgo claims within the introductory pages that these maps were initially designed to tell stories of the people in the region but also in ways to assert indigenous influence under Spanish rule. However, as new needs were formed, the reason for maps changed, as seen with the Spanish influence of the region. In fact, it is noted from other historians that Natives tended to not fully give in to Western culture or cartography. Hidalgo provides images of maps for the reader to further connect and engage in the mapwork that has been studied. The maps are analyzed through cartographic signs, alphabet writing, and materiality (p. 3). Trail of Footprints is written in a way that is easily digestible with the perfect amount of information. Information is both relevant, accurate, and well-supplied with evidence. Maps, as displayed through this book, serve as a lasting artifact that provides insight into indigenous life that continues to prove relevance today.  

Hidalgo breaks down the creation of these maps into chapters. There are four chapters: Patrons, Painters, Materials, and Authentication. These chapters, in sum, put together all that is needed for a map to be created and authenticated for use. However, the maps could also be altered to fit the desire of the compensator. From identifying towns to petitioning land to protect personal property, maps were created for a variety of reasons, and often out of commission.  What was done with the maps after, was up to the compensator. What I find to be the most fascinating, is how, despite the Spanish authority, there is still some power and influence in the maps that Natives had created.  

There is almost, a hierarchical relationship between Patrons, Spaniards, and the Indigenous people that are usually creating these maps. In this, Hidalgo argues that despite the Spaniard authority's demand for these maps, it is painters that really hold power, especially over land. In fact, he states that painters “functioned as geographic interpreters, individuals who documented the natural and built environment for multiple audiences…” (p.33). Hidalgo creates a chronological approach from the way the craft had originated to how Spanish colonization had shifted production. There are references to important historians such as Dana Leibsohn who have also analyzed indigenous maps. These maps reflected each painter and their cultural awareness, their knowledge of history, and their techniques. 

While there was an important and evolving relationship between the painter and the patron and how these maps were circulated, materials (chapter 3) were something that Hidalgo found to be essential to the understanding of indigenous maps.  The study of materials and how they were derived further contributes to the dedication and time that was put into map making. The “technical skills” of a painter can be analyzed through the “diverse chromatic range” that is formed from various mixes of materials (p. 63). However, materials were not always consistent and were often dependent on the artist. In this part of Trail of Footprints the use of documents, including an ink recipe from Andres Florez (who demonstrated Spanish material), and many other references, demonstrate how common supplies, such as ink, were produced and used in the time period. 

Authenticating maps is what made them legitimate and legal. This chapter further articulates the circulation process after a map is completed by the painters. Authentication, as Hidalgo points out, is one of the most important aspects of indigenous cartography which is “a multifaceted process to annotate and legitimate the contents of a map” (p.91). To be authenticated, painters, scribes, officials, lawyers, and litigants examined the maps. Hidalgo uses this knowledge and further provides examples of the relationships between these processes along with the Spanish involvement. However, I admire Hidalgo’s analysis of primary documents in authenticating such as manuscripts and others means. Philip’s 1568 junta magna is one that is mentioned, in addition to other scholars on the subject. 

Overall, Trail of Footprints provides an interesting insight into the creation, use, and relevance of indigenous maps today. Hidalgo is incredibly knowledgeable and shows a passion for the subject. With the use of primary documents and secondary sources to back his claim, Hidalgo creates a piece that is perfect for both a reader of knowledge in the subject and one who is looking to learn more. 


*Page numbers are based on the Kindle version of Trail of Footprints and may not match the print version of the title.

This review was written for HIST 324 at Ball State University.

[Nick · Rating 2 out of 5]

this dude sniffs maps

[S · Rating 5 out of 5]

amazing, the author is so intelligent and knows exactly what he is talking about. his writing is so good, it sounds like he was even from viceregal mexico.

[Daniel Morgan · Rating 3 out of 5]

This is a book that does a close examination of 60 indigenous-created maps from colonial Oaxaca. It is a smallish book at 130 pages - although these are two-columned - and the images are high-quality reproductions. The author examines who commissioned these maps, who the creators were, what the materials were, and how they were actually used in real life.

[Charles Heath]

Centered in Oaxaca, an analysis of how diverse indigenous communities and colonists negotiated knowledge and rights of land and natural resources, basing their claims upon the craft of mapmaking.