奥斯曼帝国六百年：土耳其帝国的兴衰

by John Patrick Douglas Balfour, 帕特里克·贝尔福, 栾力夫 (Translator)

奥斯曼土耳其人来自中亚的大草原。公元1300年左右，他们迁徙到亚洲的最西端，并且在此建立了自己的国家。草原民族的凌厉作风，土耳其人特有的灵活与包容，再加上几位开国苏丹的英明战略，让他们的国家很快壮大起来。

1453年“征服者”穆罕默德苏丹攻陷君士坦丁堡，1529年苏莱曼大帝陈兵维也纳城下——这是奥斯曼帝国的鼎盛时代。在欧洲，奥斯曼帝国灭亡了“最后的罗马帝国”拜占庭帝国，并且继承了拜占庭的广阔领土和政治遗产；在亚洲，它再现阿拉伯帝国的辉煌，带领伊斯兰世界重振了团结和繁荣。这一切，使得奥斯曼帝国在那个帝国时代无往不利，成为“三洲两海、东方西方、世界中心伊斯坦布尔的主人”。

随着世界现代的降临，奥斯曼帝国却落后了。一个又一个欧洲国家站上历史变革的潮头，崛起为奥斯曼帝国的强大对手——哈布斯堡王朝、西班牙、沙皇俄国、拿破仑帝国、英国。1683年帝国军队惨败于维也纳城下，从此，“胜利”对土耳其来说愈发成为一种奢望。为了改革日益陈旧的制度，奥斯曼帝国尝试过种种维新道路，很多维新志士乃至帝国苏丹在与守旧势力的抗争中甚至付出了生命的代价。

帝国迟缓的改革步伐，不足以应对列强争夺和民族独立运动的时代狂潮。1821年，奥斯曼帝国统治下的希腊爆发独立战争；同时期，埃及也自立门户。此后，从奥斯曼帝国的巴尔干、中东和非洲领土上陆续分裂出二十余个国家。其中很多国家很快成为西方的殖民地或附庸。最后，帝国本身也在“一战”战败后倾覆。

奥斯曼帝国六百年，是三百年的强盛加上三百年的衰落的故事。它是一个世界性大帝国、世界的十字路口。如果它保持优势，当今世界也会因此不同。但是，戏剧性的近代史却把土耳其挤出了强国之列，令它成为现代化和西方崛起的趋势中的一个被抛下、被欺凌的例子。在土耳其的跌宕国运中，中国读者能找得到祖国的影子，也找得到很多国际现状的根源。那段帝国时代是欧亚两洲，乃至整个世界近代不可磨灭、无法回避的历史记忆。

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Middle East, Islam, Medieval, Asia, Turkish

769 pages, Hardcover

First published January 1, 1976

About the author

John Patrick Douglas Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross (1904–1976) was a Scottish historian and writer noted for his biography of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and other works on Islamic history.

He studied at the University of Oxford.
In 1938, he married Angela Mary Culme-Seymour, daughter of George Culme-Seymour and Janet (née Orr-Ewing) and former wife of the artist John Spencer-Churchill. They were divorced in 1942, whereupon Angela married the Comte de Chatellus. She was the model for "the bolter" in Nancy Mitford's novel The Pursuit of Love.

Despite the brief marriage, Lord Kinross was homosexual. He had no issue and was succeeded by his brother David Andrew Balfour, 4th Baron Kinross.--wikipedia

Reviews

[Bob Newman · Rating 5 out of 5]

Why did Constantinople get the works ?

Covering 622 years of history in exactly that many pages is no joke, especially when your subject is as vast as the Ottoman Empire, that began with Osman in the year 1300 and shuffled off the record in 1923, when the man who became known as Ataturk shipped the last sultan into exile. To write about so much history is necessarily to choose certain topics to the detriment of others. Lord Kinross made his choices, and though I will argue with him over this and that, the result is certainly a splendid book, which must be called the classic history of the Ottoman Empire---for lay readers. Here are no compilations of dry statistics, no detailed analyses of agricultural production or shipbuilding techniques to confound the layman. Not a single footnote "mars" the pages, nor are references to other writers more than a handful. Kinross inserts few dates to confuse the reader, though I could have used some more enlightening in this direction. His prose is wonderfully smooth, his passage from one topic to the next, fluid. He brings up the big picture again and again, even providing an excellent summary of his ideas in the epilogue. Maps and interesting engravings pepper the pages. I looked forward to reading this book for years: I was not disappointed. However, certain caveats must be mentioned. First and foremost, this is a history that seems to have been written on English and French sources only. Thus, while I can definitely attest to its readability, I can't be sure of its accuracy. Second, Kinross' choice of subject is strictly limited. He portrays the succession of sultans, from the dynamic first ten, to the usually poor-performing, last twenty-five. He covers the various wars, rebellions, and coups in clear, graphic prose and he concentrates on the administrative patterns of the different periods of the Empire, rightly praising the early network of Christian-born officials that brought the standard of government to a level far beyond anything pertaining in Europe at the time---creating such an atmosphere that for centuries, European peasants preferred to be ruled by the Ottomans than by their own, more grasping, unpredictable rulers. Diplomacy and the many treaties entered into over the years also get intelligent treatment, and an occasional foray is made into economic development. There is still a great deal missing. If you are interested in general Ottoman culture, literature and the arts, religion, or daily life, this is not the book for you, these subjects are hardly touched. Other areas too are strangely neglected---discussion of the Turkish rule in North Africa and Asia is left out in favor of Europe. The building of the Suez Canal is mentioned only in passing. Pan-Turkism rates only a couple small paragraphs and names such as Ziya Gokalp do not appear. World War I, Gallipoli, the fighting in Mesopotamia, etc. are all glossed over with incredible speed. However, as I said before, with such a vast topic to cover, the author had to make some choices and I am just quibbling about them.
I strongly recommend this excellent book to any reader wishing a solid, well-organized, readable history of the Ottoman Empire, one of the most fascinating (and long lasting) formations of human history. And by the way, you WILL learn why Constantinople got the works.

[Shadin Pranto · Rating 3 out of 5]

সংক্ষেপে ওসমানীয় সাম্রাজ্যের উত্থান-পতনের কাহিনি জানার ইচ্ছে থাকলে পড়া যায়। ভীষণ খটোমতো ইংরেজি। লেখক শতভাগ ইংরেজপুঙ্গব। তাই ওসমানীয়দের দোষ-ত্রুটি একটু বেশিই চোখে পড়েছে। ফ্রান্স-ব্রিটিশ জাতভাইদের ক্ষেত্রে অবশ্যি খানিকটা একচোখামি দেখিয়েছেন।

আরতুগরল থেকে সর্বশেষ মহান ওসমানীয় শাসক সুলতান সুলেমান পর্যন্ত পড়তে মোটামুটি আরাম পাওয়া যায়। বাকিটা...

ইয়া মানে..বলতে ভুলে গেছি। এই কেতাবের একখান বাংলা 'অনুবাদ' আছে। নিজের পাঠক জীবনের দীর্ঘায়ু চাইলে ঐখান না ধরাই ভালো। অত্যাধিক শখ হলে মূল কেতাবখানা তো রইলই৷

[Eressea · Rating 5 out of 5]

翻譯比立緒出的奧斯曼的黃粱夢流暢準確多了...
立緒實在是糟蹋一套好書啊QQ

奧斯曼帝國六百餘年的國祚在不足六百頁正文的內容要寫完
平均一頁要寫一年，只能是六百頁的流水帳
自然不能期待描繪太深
看來期待讀仔細描寫政府制度中文書是不太可能的
越到近代寫得越簡略，一戰甚至草草帶過
而且越靠近現代，英國越"偉大"，果然是英國學者寫的書XD
看來近代戰史還是得去看鄂圖曼帝國的殞落

條列幾個看完本書的新發現~

原來基督教臣民是帝國的主要稅基
收稅主體是基督教農民，商業活動主要是猶太人和希臘人在做
那穆斯林除了當兵打仗之外都在幹麻?

搭配之前看的凱末爾傳，再度學到帝國政策基本上重歐輕亞
但歐洲領土在近代是丟最多的啊

以前讀三民出的土耳其史以為鬱金香時代是頹廢的時代
但帝國首次有意仿效歐洲制度改革也是從鬱金香時代末期開始的

馬哈茂徳二世的花廳御詔讓帝國多活了八十幾年，撐到二十世紀
帝國中期以來把諸位皇子關到變白痴的白痴儲君制度
還是能產生不世出的名君，到底如何辦到的??

阿卜杜勒-哈米德二世長達三十年的專制統治
一般都認為是帝國末年的黑暗時代
但他同時也是讓帝國進一步深化西化的君王
還養出的一批西化的政府菁英，這些人後來幾乎都變自由主義的支持者
由上而下的改革好像都免不了這種矛盾

阿卜杜勒-哈米德二世開始迫害亞美尼亞人
當中最大的打手是庫德人
到了今天亞美尼亞人有自己的國家
庫德人卻倍受打壓
還真是諷刺

作者認為共和國承帝國改革遺緒，是花廳御詔最成功的遺產
跟我的想法一樣耶(往自己臉上貼金)
民族救星凱末爾本來就是帝國培養出來的高級菁英
加上土耳其離威脅最近，有不得不改革的壓力
所以跟大清比起來，改革成果自然不能同日而語

看完本書後想想
明治維新讓日本走上軍國之路，二戰慘敗後被美國大改造
這樣能說明治維新成功嗎??
中國有維新成功過嗎??共產專政能算嗎?
土耳其從世界帝國變成民族國家，以統治者的觀點來看應該是維新有成吧?
至少帝國教出了民族救星
不過就算帝國後期厲精圖治
在民族主義浪潮下頂多變成像奧匈那樣的多元帝國?
最後還是會在一戰後解體吧?

[Betül · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book had been collecting dust on my bookshelf for a very long time, so I decided to finally read it in February 2018. This book is seriously huge (thickness and size - 600+ pages), and the font is small, so I knew it would take me some time to finish it. It took me like 6 months to read half of the book last year. The main reason was that this author's English was sometimes not the easiest to understand. It wasn't too bad, but if I didn't understand a couple of words, it made it difficult for me to get what was going on. Which resulted in me having to reread the same paragraph a couple of times. But I finally pushed myself to finish it this year, and I am happy I did, because I think it laid a great groundwork for the biography of Atatürk, which I have been dying to read.

I am of Turkish origin but didn't really know a lot about the history of the country, which I am happy I am finding out now. I think it is important to know about your roots and have an understanding of what your ancestors have gone through. I think The Ottoman Centuries was a very detailed book, and I enjoyed learning about how the Republic of Turkey came into existence.

[Erik Graff · Rating 4 out of 5]

Knowing very little about the scope of Ottoman history and then mostly from the perspective of Western Europe, I snapped this up during a work break from the Amarinth Bookstore on Davis in downtown Evanston. It was just what I wanted: an informative general survey written for the layperson.

[Jaybird Rex · Rating 4 out of 5]

Though readable and maybe a good introduction to the topic, this book is utterly western in its approach and, therefore, it's difficult to get into any approximation of the mindset of the Ottomans while reading it. A glance at the Select Bibliography (and it is a short list) shows only English titles and a handful of French and German titles. No Turkish titles, no primary sources.

Thus, while the book sweeps centuries, it might have serious issues passing as the thesis of a graduate student in history. A balance in perspective is important, and this book lacks it just a bit. That said, as vast a swathe as it does cover, the reader does get a concise outline of the enormous history of the empire with coherence. I guess that's something.

[Dean Lombardo · Rating 5 out of 5]

A Historical Treasure.

For many Westerners, a notable omission from our pre-adult schooling is the history of the Ottoman Empire, which began in about 1300 A.D. and lasted several centuries before its dissolution shortly after World War I. In terms of an introduction, I know of no better introductory course with which to fill these knowledge gaps than “The Ottoman Centuries,” by the late-great Scot, Sir Patrick Balfour, aka Lord Kinross.

In his illustrated and mapped 622-page volume, Kinross traces the roots of the once mighty Turkish-based Empire, starting with the nomad peoples who flowed westward along the Eurasian steppes absorbing land and other tribes in the sixth century before settling in Anatolia, which is now largely modern-day Turkey. Centuries later, from this new homeland arose a succession of Sultans powerful enough to not only build an expanding empire of warriors, scholars, governors and landowners throughout Asia, Europe and parts of the Middle East and Africa, but to keep neighboring Christians to the West in near-constant fear. The first Sultan was Osman, who ruled from about 1299 to 1326 and from whom the Ottoman Empire got its name. With 35 Sultans to follow him, some impressive and some ineffective, the Empire grew and contracted, blossomed and decayed, but in a progressive period under the leadership of Bayezid I, Mehmed II (“the Conqueror”), and Suleiman I, the Ottoman Empire came to be the most powerful human force on Earth. Mehmed achieved the unthinkable from the Western perspective: His forces captured the capital of the Christian Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, in 1453 and renamed it Istanbul. Kinross writes with seeming objectivity, but also with vivid detail and passion, as he covers the numerous battles between Ottoman Muslims and Christians, and Ottoman Muslims and their Muslim rivals to the east. Despite vicious defensive counterattacks led by warriors such as Romania’s Vlad Dracul (1431-1476) – who is mentioned briefly and not-sensationalized in this book – as well as other Christian knights, European countries and city states fell to the Ottoman invaders. Albania, Romania and much of Greece and Hungary were soon absorbed into the sometimes respectful, sometimes brutal Ottoman Empire.

At its height under Suleiman I, the Ottoman Empire continued to grow and with advanced weaponry and military techniques it was eventually knocking on the doors to Austria and Italy. However, like with every great empire that has ever existed, the “height” is often abruptly or gradually followed by a decline. In this case, the decline was gradual through internal conflict between the sovereign leader and his once-loyal Janissaries (a large special fighting force) and due to a legacy of ineffective leaders who, upon abandoning traditional practices, turned to distractive debauchery, leading to mismanagement of imperial affairs. Another factor in the decline of the Ottomans was that the West was catching up, first by regaining its naval superiority (and confidence). The West’s initial glimmer of hope in a long time came when a southern European Catholic alliance handed the “invincible” Ottomans a tide-turning defeat off the coast of western Greece during the Battle of Lepanto in 1571.

Nationalistic fervor arose in lands such as Bulgaria and Greece, and the rest of Europe, anxious to protect the rights of their fellow Christians, whether Latin or Orthodox, began to mediate and even at times intercede with force. By the late 17th century the Empire was shrinking but this is not to imply that further great Sultans did not rule from this point forward. Selim III (1789-1807) introduced major reforms that included open exchanges with the West and internal policies that once again united the Empire through the elimination of corruption and inefficiency. However, the conservative elements in the Empire rebelled and dethroned and killed Selim. The reforms of a following Sultan, Mahmud II (1808-1939), gained greater traction and helped the Ottomans prosper for a period before threats from ambitious Russian tsars desiring control over the Black Sea and the Dardanelles, and further rebellions within the Empire, pushed the kingdom to its breaking point. Bankruptcy followed and the Empire became deeply indebted to foreign lenders. Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909), by some known for his persecution of the Armenian people, introduced reforms in the areas of long-distance communication, infrastructure and education. In this environment and with a growing influence of liberalism from the West, a group of intellectuals known as the Young Turks rose to power.

In the early 20th century as tensions heightened toward war, the weakened Ottoman Empire found its only ally in Germany, formerly Prussia, which in the past had helped to train Ottoman soldiers. Siding with Germany, the Ottomans ended up on the losing side of the war and hence saw their empire reduced to basically what is now modern-day Turkey. The last Sultan, Mehmed VI, was exiled in November of 1922, and the modern Republic of Turkey formed in 1923.

Thanks to Lord Kinross, I now have some familiarity with an important time and place in our collective history, a portion of history merely touched upon in U.S. high schools. Entirely fascinating, the exciting history lesson provided in “The Ottoman Centuries” flows in an easy-to-read and easy-to-digest manner, and if I were to criticize anything it would be that natural tendency we all have to narrate history through the eyes and hearts of our homeland. A few times, Kinross assigned ulterior motives to the actions of Russia, France and Germany toward the Ottomans, while in typical fashion, the British author and historian matter-of-factly described all British involvement as the altruistic goodwill of an “unquestionably” gentle British Empire. Beyond that, I loved the book, devoured it, and I recommend it to any history buffs wishing to ramp up on a magnificent subject that may still be foreign to them.

[Czarny Pies · Rating 1 out of 5]

"The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire" by Lord Kinross would have been a dreadful book when it was first published in 1979. Today it stands as a dreadful waste of time. Given that Kinross had previously written a good biography of Atarturk, I had been expecting something much better.
Kinross' book has no academic pretentions. With a mere two page biography and scores of illustrations it appears to be aimed at the reader who knows nothing about Turkey and is looking for a quick introduction. However, as such it is in today's world inadequate. The members of the book-reading public in 2020 knows more about Turkey and the Ottoman Empire than they did 40 years ago. Orhan Pamuk's books have provided significant insight into the art, society and culture of Turkey. Netflix which regularly runs excellent historical Turkish dramas. I remember watching "The Love Bird" based on Guntekin's novel "Çalıkuşu" which taught me more about Turkish history than did Kinross' lamentable book.
"The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire" is about only the Ottoman dynasty. It covers the palace intrigues, wars and diplomacy with the European powers from 1299 to 1920 AD. There is no discussion of economic, social or cultural trends. The Eastern border of the Empire is completely ignored. With Kinross appears to have done is rely on Europe histories of the Ottoman's invasions and occupation of Greece, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and the Balkan lands to create his own thin narrative.
The first quarter of the book which retells the fall of the Byzantine Empire is particularly ghastly. He adds nothing new to the account provided by Edward Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" which was published in the 18th Century. Kinross gets consistently better as his narrative draws closer to the time when he lived in the Middle East. He provides a competent description of the rise of the Young Turk movement at the end of the 19th Century. His account of how Western diplomacy drove Turkey into an alliance with Germany during WWI is very insightful. Nonetheless, it is too little too late. This book lacks any true value.

[Happyreader · Rating 4 out of 5]

Despite being a Scotsman, Lord Kinross has written a very balanced and readable Ottoman history. He respects the empire and reports and analyzes the history without bombast or a Eurocentric bent. This would be a good book for anyone interested in European or Middle Eastern history.

There is a lot here to keep readers interested. How the first sultans conquered through both force and patiently playing off the animosities between Latin and Greek Christians. How the Ottomans created a model of rule very different from their European and Asian counterparts and expanded their empire through those differences – which also planted the seeds of their demise. How the Ottoman Empire at different times disrupted and maintained the balance of power in both Europe and Asia. For such an influential empire, it’s a shame that this history is barely covered in most US world history classes.

[Michael Cook · Rating 4 out of 5]

I wanted to know more about the Ottoman Empire, since in school it felt like we covered the fall of Constantinople, and that was it- even though the empire lasted over 600 years. This book answered that question and more for me, comprehensively covering the history of this nation from medieval into the modern era. However, I will say that it covered the things that happened: wars, regime changes, policies, etc; But did not do a great job of covering the cultural changes and what it would have felt like to actually live in the empire. It was also a bit rushed at the end- all of WWI and its aftermath was covered in about 10 pages or so. but overall I am glad I read it and I certainly learned a lot.

[WaldenOgre · Rating 4 out of 5]

因为时间跨度大，所以每一个历史时期的内容都讲得比较笼统而浅显。作者的叙述足够流畅，虽然叙述之外的分析，其占比和含金量都不算很高。

然而，这样一本700多页篇幅、横跨600年的大部头通史，它最重要的功用是向读者提供一种清晰的历史脉络。那至少在这一点上，本书是完全合格的。

[Carlos Wang · Rating 4 out of 5]

這本書買了之後拆開來翻一翻就先放一邊，幾年過去拿起來一看，紙張發黃，生斑點，彷如已經放了十幾年一樣的讓我震驚。

我原以為是比較嚴肅一點的，但其實是敘事史。
作者文筆很好，翻譯的也很流暢。
只是那個濃濃的優越感(英國是真心想幫助土耳其進步的..XDDDD)，算是時代的眼淚(話說不是出在上世紀七零年代嗎)。
說起來我也讀了好幾本這類的書了，估計應該不會再買了吧。

[Andrew Gillsmith · Rating 5 out of 5]

It is amazing how little we in the west remember of the Ottoman Empire, which dominated much of the Eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamia for centuries.

Here, Lord Kinross gives us the definitive treatment of the rise and fall of the Ottomans. There is a bit of everything in this: military adventure, theology, court intrigues, family drama. One comes away from it feeling that one has truly encountered the Ottomans as they lived.

This book is to the Ottoman Empire as Edward Gibbon's series was to Rome.

[Rindis · Rating 4 out of 5]

The Ottoman Empire lasted a shade over six centuries, and Lord Kinross covers its history in a bit over 600 pages. 600 quite good pages, with a fair number of full-page images (mostly period portraits or landscapes) and a small number of maps. This is high-level history, so details are often sparse, but it does the job of outlining the course of the Ottoman state well.

This is not 'a new history', or... 'new' anything, even for when it came out in 1977. It is a long look at an admired subject, all told in one volume without going outside the confines of established historical study. It is instead a solid bedrock to lay the foundation for other works, such as The Ottoman Age of Exploration . If anything comes off a bit biased, it is probably British involvement in the 19th century; I can't help but feel a little cynical about that, though I think he didn't romanticize it all that heavily either.

[Clay Kallam · Rating 5 out of 5]

Not since Shelby Foote's wonderful "The Civil War: A Narrative" have I enjoyed a history book as much I did "The Ottoman Centuries." John Patrick Douglas Balfour, aka Lord Kinross, tells the complex story of the rise and fall of the Ottomans by using its sultans and its foreign relations as the lens. The combination works well, as the personalities of this long line of absolute rulers were imprinted on the empire, and the connections to Europe -- much greater than I had known -- ground the narrative for a Western reader.

And given the continued importance of the Middle East and Islamic states in the modern world, a better understanding of their roots can only be a positive, as for example, the power of Islamic fundamentalism was an integral part of even this very powerful empire throughout its existence.

For me, another plus was the fact that I was simply ignorant of much of the rich and vital detail of the history of Ottoman Empire, and now I have least a basic grasp of one of the most important states of the past thousand years.

[Earl Grey Tea · Rating 3 out of 5]

This book was a plethora of information and I was able to learn a lot. Luckily, I had been playing quite a bit of Europa Universalis IV, so I was somewhat familiar with some of the locations and historical concepts.

I found the earlier parts of the Ottoman Empire more interesting, learning about how the first few Sultans were able to form their new dynasty. After Sultan #10, the quality and competency of the Sultans were all down hill from there. The book was still chock full of information, but it was a slow decent to the inevitable collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

After the conquest of Constantinople, the majority of the book centered around the European holdings of the Ottomans, especially the Balkans and the Black Sea. Except for a couple of armies to confront the Persians once in a while or European army running around in Egypt, there was much focus on the Middle Eastern section of the Ottoman Empire.

[晓木曰兮历史系 Chinese · Rating 5 out of 5]

In the 13th century AD, after the Mongolian iron hoof swept across Asia Minor, a regional power vacuum appeared. Under the leadership of its outstanding leader Ottoman, the Ottomans gradually became stronger, and under the leadership of subsequent generations of successors, they built a small tribe into a small tribe. A powerful empire. With the conqueror Mohammed conquering Constantinople and Suleiman the Great marching south and north, the Ottoman Empire became a regional overlord across Eurasia and the most terrible enemy in the Christian world.

However, the peak is declining. After Suleiman the Great, the 25 sultans in succession could not be compared with their predecessors. Their ruling ability was sometimes good and bad. The Ottoman Empire survived the ups and downs of fate for another three centuries. With the increasing rise of European civilization, the gap between the Ottoman Empire and the European powers has grown wider and wider. It was defeated by the enemy again and again, until it was controlled by the powers, and the territory was gradually lost, and eventually became a person who was deceived by others." "European sick man", in the end, after blindly participating in and defeating the First World War, the Ottoman Empire completely disappeared in the long river of history.

The rise of the Ottoman Empire lies in its superb organization, excellent discipline, and excellent adaptability. The Ottoman Empire effectively combines many races and religions in its territory. Although it is an Islamic country, its Christian subjects are not only There is no oppression, and the Orthodox Church has developed considerably under its protection, which is in sharp contrast to the oppression of other denominations in other Catholic areas. The Ottoman rulers used Christian slaves to form elite guards and trained their outstanding personnel to become officials of the empire. Their enlightened policies enabled the harmonious development of various ethnic groups and religions in the territory, and their economic, cultural, and military strength was once far superior to that of Europe. Country. However, limited by its military logistical capabilities at that time, Vienna became the limit for the expansion of the Ottoman Empire, and generations of sultans were defeated under the walls of Vienna. With the rise of European nationalism, European countries have become stronger in foreign expansion and warfare. Generations of celebrities have become the nightmare of the Ottoman Empire. With the rise of the Russian Empire, the Ottomans have tasted failures in the Russian-Turkish War. The consequences. The conservativeness of new things in Islam and the blind confidence in its superiority made the Ottoman Empire gradually lose its leading advantages in system, military, culture, and technology, while the increasingly powerful guards were guarded by the empire. They became a gunpowder barrel that threatened the empire, the "cage" of the heirs of the sultan. Although it avoided the royal mutilation on the right of inheritance, the heirs of the sultan were often unsound minds and wills. In a monarchy The country is a fatal flaw.

Looking at the history of the Ottoman Empire can give us great enlightenment. The history of the country’s evolution from prosperity to decline is very similar to China. It used to be a vast territory, with culture, technology, and military far beyond its surroundings. It is admired by people. The countries in China were once inclusive and diversified countries. They all began to decline after several expansions and reached the limits of their territories. They all encountered the partition of European powers and their internal affairs and diplomacy were unable to autonomy. They failed because they did not touch the basic system. They all started their own road of independence in the post-World War environment. They are now on the road of national rejuvenation.... If we carefully examine the Ottoman Empire, we will find that the rise and fall of China is not a “special case”. To a certain extent, the Ottoman Empire is our "mirror". Through reference and comparison, we can find our gains and losses in history and draw lessons from them. Today, both Turkey and China are on the road to national rejuvenation. Turkey is facing ethnic problems, regional conflicts, and struggling to move forward in the cracks between the United States, Russia and Europe. China hopes that with the efforts of us and future generations, it will restore its history. Glory, return to the pinnacle of the world's nations.

[Victor Anica · Rating 4 out of 5]

Lord Kinross’s work offers an in-depth history of one of the widest, most successful, and most unifying empires in human history. The book is structured chronologically, beginning with the empire’s founder, Osman I, and following the line of sultans through to Mehmed II and Suleiman the Magnificent, all the way up to the 20th century. It presents both the achievements and shortcomings of the Ottoman Empire over roughly 600 years of its existence.

However, some of the stories are, at times, little more than legends. I don’t mind the author weaving facts with fiction occasionally, but claiming, for instance, that Bragadin wasn’t flayed alive, or treating certain local folk tales as established facts, is a bit frustrating. Despite this, the book remains rich in detail and context, and there is something about its language that keeps it engaging and prevents lesser historical subjects from becoming tedious.

PS: The Romanian edition is riddled with typographical errors.

[June · Rating 5 out of 5]

A companion read initially, of Muhteşem Yüzyıl (The Magnificent Century), a TV series that tired me of eyeballing subtitles, became a magnificent journey stand alone. If one must pick one book on World history spanning the broadest (geographic/ethnic, religion/philosophy, war/politics...) and the longest (Roman, Byzantine, Arab,..., Central Empires, Triple Entente,...modern Middle East), it should be on Ottoman Empire narrated in the style of this book.

[David Poyer · Rating 4 out of 5]

Exhaustive and a bit exhausting. Great for bedtime!

[Jean Bonilla · Rating 2 out of 5]

Whew! This book is DENSE. I gave it one star because it starts out well. The early history draws on other works I've read. Suleimen the Magnificent is dynamic, proactive, and inspiring. But after his reign concludes, the empire steadily decline, until it simply disintegrates and the last Sultan is sent off to end his life in obscurity.

Good points: an interesting insight into how Turkey evolved as a secular state, while so many other Moslem nations have religious governments. That same perspective is valuable in interpreting today's tension over whether countries like Afghanistan should adopt religious or secular governing frameworks. It also is relevant to our policies today in the region. I do recognize a very few of the names of modern political actors, but there isn't a lot of detail about their work.

But truthfully, I don't recommend this tome for anybody who wants to take a first look at the area's history. I found the lack of information on the rounding up and elimination of the Armenians disappointing because that's a subject of interest to me personally, but far more significant for the average reader was the dearth of decent maps. Yes, there are maps, but they are inadequate and poorly aligned with the battles and movements in the text. Who ever heard of Konya or Bursa? And Angora? Yarn must come from there. If I hadn't spent four years living in Hungary, I would have had no clue as to the location of Keresztes or Temesvar or how to pronounce them! Given the fact that the events described are relatively unfamiliar to American readers, this deficit made understanding the history quite hard. Lastly, came the chore of tackling the many names of the sultans, their Grand Vezirs, and the numerous relatives and relationships. Thank goodness for Wikipedia!

If you already have a working knowledge of the era and its geography, this detailed description makes a good follow-on study. For me, it was too much at one gulp.

2018 Update: I’ve come back to up my rating to two stars because in the year and a half since I finished the book, I’ve thought back numerous times on its information and descriptions. It has served me as an source of context in reading books as varied as the life of Cleopatra and the life of Shakespeare. I also reflected back somewhat differently on the history of Marco Polo’s journeys. In short, it deserves another star!

[Sean · Rating 4 out of 5]

This was a terrifically readable history in which Lord Kinross seamlessly switched back and forth between the individual characters and the overall picture. That's more or less what the blurb boasted and it is exactly what the book delivered. This really brought to life the Ottomans, who were much more important historically than I had realised.

I could not put this book down during some parts, particularly the chapters on Mehmed the Conqueror, Suleiman the Magnificent, and Mahmud II. Reading about Rhodes and Malta was like watching a good war movie. If you are like me and you normally switch off when you hear about the history of Greece and the Balkans, you should read this book - it is the cure.

The era of reform (and repeated relapse) from the Tanzimat onwards was also really interesting because of how it narrated the difficulty of reform in a country that needed it to survive but which was dead set against it, and how it played out, alternating between reform through tyranny, reform through constitutional rule, stagnation despite constitutional rule, and stagnation through tyrrany.

My one criticism is that I felt from my supplementary reading that it did gloss over or almost whitewash some of the Ottomans' medieval cruelties, particularly under Mehmed II and Suleiman the Magnificent, which were a step up from what the rest of Europe was (usually) doing. That said, it had enough content to cover and those parts were so interesting that maybe Lord Kinross simply wanted to illustrate more important historical events and facts. You certainly couldn't say that he was uncritical of the Ottomans during their stagnation and decline.

The military history was lightweight but very interesting and (grossly generalising) portrayed the Turks as very handy during sieges but not quite so competent in open battle. [As an avid Age of Kings player this has permanently enriched my game playing experience and further enhanced my respect for Ensemble Studios game balance person.]

Overall, I would recommend this to anyone who enjoys European history and doesn't know much about the Turks, you will feel greatly enriched from reading it.

[Omar Taufik · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a book written as a history to the six century long Ottoman Empire ..
The author started his six hundred plus page book with the westward migration of the Turkmen tribes from the Central Asian steppes finally reaching Asia Minor. The rise of the Ottoman principality from between the other Turkmen principalities in Anatolia at the dawn of the fourteenth century and the birth of the Ottoman dynasty to last six centuries ending the book with final collapse of the empire at the start the twentieth century with the end of world war 1.
I do believe that the author did not put the proper emphasis on the final years especially after the losing the war until the final establishment of the republic of Turkey since such years are still considered a part of Ottoman history.
In between the author displays deep knowledge takes us on this long journey from sultan to another going through the major battles, treaties and changes with great talent and valuable analysis including interesting description of each sultan and other major figures.
Something to note about this book is that this book was written by a twentieth century British author where it could be considered an Ottoman history in Western or European eyes - seems that the author primarily depended on Western sources available - providing other than Ottoman history a great deal of useful European history and how the Ottoman state impacted the various powers in Europe and vice versa.
The religious factor in describing the many wars fought and ethnic conflicts is present but may not be an issue considering the context of the author writing and period of early twentieth century Europe .. but still was fair to a good extent ..
At the end the author provides us with a great epilogue for his book and this history and state.
This book is a strong recommendation for those interested in the subject but as mentioned before the cultural context might be disturbing to non Western readers sometimes plus the length and ocean of details might be overwhelming for beginners in the subject... but from my end I truly enjoyed this book !

[Xq Huang · Rating 5 out of 5]

土耳其人的根在哪？溯起源来，可以与远在中国阿勒泰地区到里海地区一带草原上的突厥民族建起联系，他们在一直往西迁的过程中，到了阿拉伯的塞尔柱时，定居下来。后来发展成为其重要的军事力量。随着蒙古帝国的西进，他们曾走到灭亡的边缘，后又随着蒙古帝国的消亡，他们在小亚细亚生存下来，并成为了对抗拜占庭帝国的一支重要力量，最后灭亡拜占庭，成立奥斯曼帝国。

第一代奥斯曼人是先父奥斯曼聚笼起来的，他带领这拨人脱离了土耳其人，极偶然地选择了最早的居住地，依靠他的包容精神成就了最早的奥斯曼国，他使伊斯兰人与基督徒和睦相处，相比权力和财富，他坚信公正更重要，这是国家能够持久的根本。他构建了奥斯曼的基础，而他的儿子奥尔汗打开了奥斯曼发展的道路。

奥尔汗不是依靠军事才能，而是依靠外交手段，与拜占庭周旋，最后成功挺进欧洲。

穆拉德一世是奥斯曼历史上开疆扩土的最大功臣。他将奥斯曼的从东到西的3天的跨距扩大到42天，整个巴尔干地区都纳入进来。他继承了先辈们的宽容美德，使得穆斯林与基督徒和睦相处，比基督教内部天主教与东正教之间的对立不知要好多少。实际上所谓的十字军东征有时解决的只是基督教内部问题，远不是外部人们的想的那么纯洁。从此奥斯曼治下的和平逐步开始取代罗马治下的和平，成为世界和平的定心丸。

巴耶济德继位后继续扩张的势头不减，全面向巴尔干半岛、东欧地区推进，这个时期的基督教世界，天主教与东正教相互对立，民众对伊斯兰的期待超过基督教，宏大的十字军东征的最后一次行动也被伊斯兰彻底击败。伊斯兰围攻基督教的东罗马君士坦丁堡全面展开。然而由于巴耶济德的治国理念完全抛弃了奥斯曼先祖们立下的宽容政策，变得残酷无情，包括对自己的亲兄弟也因为担心篡���开始杀无赦，本来为众生广泛接受的统治随后开始令人噤若寒蝉，为走向鼎盛的奥斯曼埋下了隐忧。

巴耶济德的狂妄在遇到鞑靼人贴木尔时败下阵来，不仅遭到无情的羞辱，差一点奥斯曼的帝国梦都被击碎，最后好在威尼斯、热那亚等欧洲国家的支持，且经历了巴耶济德几个儿子之间的相互残杀后，最后默罕默德一世走向了苏丹之位。
恢复统一的奥斯曼迎来了穆拉德二世，穆拉德二世是位开明的君主，当时的奥斯曼在亚洲和欧洲依然战事不断，其内部也存在着矛盾，特别是欧洲的匈牙利和威尼斯代表着基督教世界的对抗力量，不时发难，但穆拉德二世都富于智慧地加以化解。他重建的近卫军，军队中的不少基督教士兵被重用，并最终走向高位，这也引起了传统贵族的反对。＇他希望构建和平的环境后尽早退位，在30年中他曾两退两进，主要原因是接任者穆罕默德二世鲁莽的性格，不过经过他的努力，最后，他将一个稳定的奥斯曼交给了穆罕默德二世。

虽然父辈们与拜占庭签署了和平条约，但是穆罕默德二世需要的不是和平，而是战争，他必须占领这块地方。为此他迅速发展军力，建设城堡，建设海军，在仅仅登基两年之后，依靠强攻征服了君士坦丁堡，整个攻城过程极为惨烈，拜占庭帝国期望信仰来保佑他们的愿望未能达成，在最艰难的时候，基督教世界没有伸出援手，不过这一惨痛的失败着实震惊了他们。

穆罕默德二世既残酷无情，也果敢坚定，他摧毁了君士坦丁堡，他又要重新建设伊斯坦布尔。他从外地大量引移民进入伊斯坦布尔，原来逃出去的居民又重回来，移民包括信奉不同宗教的人士，而且给他们相应的待遇，构建了初步的社会保障体系，建立了大市场，建设清真寺，也修建基督教堂，包容的文化使这里又一次快速的兴起，很快就成为欧亚交往的重要枢纽。

穆罕默德二世在征服伊斯坦布尔之后，迅速开始征服亚洲、欧洲的行动，其目标无疑罗马，他要再建设一个新的拜占庭。周边的一些小国由于畏惧他，而签署了纳贡的协议，但是并不情愿，一些强悍的领主则与奥斯曼对着干，东边的白羊族、西边的贝尔格莱德、塞尔维亚、阿尔巴尼亚都是硬骨头，最远奥斯曼的铁蹄已经踏上了意大利半岛，但是不知什么原因，没有持续，而是掉头争夺罗德岛，该岛是威尼斯的重要贸易枢纽，当时西方最强大的国家就是威尼斯，因为它有强大的海军，然而这次虽然岛屿都炸烂了，还是没有征服，十字军的旗帜依然飘扬在那里，可穆罕默德二世的生命已到了终点。

回顾穆罕默德二世的一生，登基伊始，即杀死他的全部兄弟，并将此规则立为法律，从而在内部稳定的环境下，展开了全面的治国行动。他对西方外来先进的东西一律不排斥，建立了宫廷学院培养治国人才，学员们来自不同的宗教信仰，而且官员没有继承权。他大力发展军队，以保证帝国的安全。他仿照拜占庭，构建了威严的奥斯曼帝国体制，他要让伊斯兰文明继承并超越基督教文明，他是东正教文明的狂热爱好者，他的包容是帝国持续五百年的重要基础。

穆罕默德二世逝世后，他的儿子巴耶济德在近卫军的帮助下成功登基。巴耶济德是个温和的苏丹，他的弟弟本来可以活下来，但是却一直与之对抗，因此被杀。亚洲这边，土库曼人在波斯统治者的协助下，一直对帝国的边界不断骚扰，叙利亚的马木留克王朝是帝国的另一个威胁，不过基本上都通过不太激烈的方式达成了稳定。由于健康原因，巴耶济德退位后，将权力交给了儿子塞利姆。塞利姆是一个残暴的苏丹，他不仅依法杀死了自己的兄弟，还包括侄子，他的父亲巴耶济德，他的七位大维齐尔都身首异处。他开疆拓土的举措是大开杀戒，大量俘虏命丧奥斯曼帝国的刀枪之下。他征服了麦加和麦地那圣地，从此成为了伊斯兰真正的世界领袖。他治下的疆域渗透到欧洲的尼罗河沿岸，东边则抵达印度洋。

16世纪，基督教世界进入文艺复兴的时代，开始崛起，其中的神圣罗马帝国皇帝查理五世、法国的弗朗索瓦一世、英格兰的亨利八世都是这个时代的缔造者，而奥斯曼这边出了苏莱曼苏丹，更是把奥斯曼帝国推向了巅峰。基督教世界开始起来对抗伊斯兰奥斯曼，但其内部的不团结一开始就使他们遭受了失败，这时法国秘密与奥斯曼结盟对抗神圣罗马帝国。苏莱曼大帝开始从陆地、海上全方位挺进欧洲的核心，陆上征服了贝尔格莱德，拿下了匈牙利，直捣哈布斯堡王朝的中心维也纳，海上则将骑士团赶出罗德岛，切断基督教世界的海上朝圣之路，以确保伊斯坦布尔的安全。

完成了征服罗德岛的战事后，苏莱曼修整了几年，随后命自己的发小易卜拉辛为最高指挥官，他是一个出生于希腊的基督教奴隶家庭的儿子。开始与神圣罗马皇帝查理五世争夺世界领袖的位置，兵到匈牙利时，对方几乎没有象样的抵抗，即战败，国王战死。在奥斯曼军撤退后，这里出现了两个替代的国王，一个代表哈布斯堡王朝家族，一个代表匈牙利本土，这时苏莱曼充分利用了他们之间的矛盾，第二年再次西进直抵维也纳城下，但遭遇龙顽强抵抗，当年没能拿下，第二年再战，依然没有拿下。查理五世为了抵抗奥斯曼大军的进攻，争取更多兵力的支持，曾向马丁·路德妥协，此事也促进了欧洲的宗教改革运动，使得天主教和新教第一次实现了团结，两次攻城失败后，苏莱曼彻底放弃了西进的企图，回到了伊斯坦布尔，不过从此奥斯曼帝国在欧洲事务中开始有了举足轻重的影响力。

苏莱曼被他的国民称为立法者苏丹，相比于前任苏丹的武力征服者姿态，他更是文韬武略的苏丹，他构建的行政官僚体系大多由信奉基督教的人担任，构建的宗教立法体系则由信奉伊斯兰教人担任，他彻底改变了穆罕默德建立的土地所有权和税收制度，强化了中央集权，他的立法原则体现了公平正义，赢得了民众的欢迎，甚至吸引了边疆地带基督教世界的百姓主动逃到他的国家来生活，在西方使节眼中，这里已是一个文明的国家。

16世纪开始，西方引领了海洋时代到来，对苏莱曼的奥斯曼来说，为了成为世界领袖，争做海上霸主是不可廻避的选择。他们最早从收编北非的海盗入手，开始组建自己的海军，选定的人物就是巴巴罗萨。在参与奥斯曼海上征战的十几年时间里，巴巴罗萨的军事才能得以充分发挥，通过结盟法国，给予西班牙海上霸权以沉重打击，占领了北非的突尼斯，不断侵扰意大利沿岸和地中海岛屿，有效控制住整个地中海，使得基督教世界陷入恐慌。

苏莱曼一直是两线作战，西边打到了维也纳城下，再往前一直走不动，于是重点做实匈牙利，确保边境的安全。东边则是波斯，20年间，苏莱曼共发起了三次战争，征服了巴格达等地，但始终未突破其中心大不里士，不过其疆域已是帝国最辽阔的的时期。这时期最令人悲哀的事件是苏丹最好的搭档易卜拉欣被人设陷杀死，苏丹所喜爱的长子被后宫替补皇后诬陷杀死，替代皇后的希望，自己优秀的二子巴耶济德，也被人设计杀害，最后是替补皇后的长子，沉湎酒色的塞利姆登上了苏丹大位，从此奥斯曼帝国转盛而衰。

奥斯曼在红海和波斯湾到印度洋一带，为了保护自身利益，开启了与海上强国葡萄牙的对决，海战异常激烈，最后成功控制了亚丁湾和霍尔木兹海峡。然而在地中海东部通往基督教圣地的最后堡垒马尔他岛的战役中，奥斯曼付出了惨痛的代价，双方都称之为圣战，土耳其战败，苏莱曼为他没有亲临现场指挥而懊恼，于是他决定参加下一次征战，这也是他生命中的最后一次征战，最后征服了匈牙利，但很遗憾年老体弱的他未能看到最后的胜利，并且为了保证其子塞利姆的顺利登基，密不发丧数日，当士兵在征战胜利后听到宣礼员为死者吟诵的经文时，无不痛苦哀悼，奥斯曼已失去了一代伟大的征服者。

苏莱曼时期的奥斯曼生活方式已经超过了西方，这与土耳其的专制统治有关，也与他的几位大维齐尔的辅佐密切相关，他们都是基督教背景家庭出生，特别是最后一位大维切尔穆罕默德·索科卢，他辅佐了苏莱曼、塞利姆和穆拉德三位苏丹，他的杰出贡献使奥斯曼既使在衰败的路上依然保持着强大的优势。在塞利姆登基后，为了抵御俄罗斯的向南扩张，且实现对波斯的威慑，索科卢曾设想打通黑海和里海的运河通道，也曾因为与东方贸易的需要，设想开凿苏伊士运河以连接地中海和红海，虽然未有实现，但这一大胆的设想本身就令人惊叹。在索科卢准备征战对手西班牙，夺取突尼斯的时候，塞利姆苏丹突然对友好国家威尼斯发难，迫使对方割让其岛屿塞浦路斯，这引起了教皇庇护五世的坚决反对，他号召以西班牙和威尼斯为核心组成了神圣联盟，并在勒班陀海战中一举击败奥斯曼帝国，这场战争成为一次转折点，从此奥斯曼帝国所向披靡的态势被遏制，团结的欧洲开始出现。索科卢在塞利姆去世后继续辅佐穆拉德三世，新苏丹趁波斯内乱之际发起攻击，迫使波斯人签署了和约，同意割让格鲁吉亚、阿塞拜疆、希尔凡、大不里士和其他一些省份，但奥斯曼并未很好地控制这些地区。与此同时，贪财好色苏丹的行为导致的内部斗争直接要了大维齐尔索科卢的命，从此，奥斯曼的衰败开始一发不可收。

奥斯曼真正走向衰败的原因不是外患，而是内乱，衰落直接体现在苏丹权威的下降和政府机构的弱化上，加上没有了对外的征战的目标，财富的获得开始转向内部，政府体系开始抛弃原来的择优录取方式，出现了世袭制度，近卫军也因长年少战变得没有了战斗力，集权统治的土地政策使得土地集中到少部分人手里，通货膨胀严重，国家内部腐败丛生，相当一批无土地的农民四处漂泊，被沦为土匪和强盗，进而导致叛乱。
苏莱曼之后经历了4位苏丹，穆拉德三世、穆罕默德三世、艾哈迈德一世、穆斯塔法一世和奥斯曼二世。在穆罕默德三世期间，奥斯曼在欧洲战场意外取得了胜利，从而保住了欧洲的大部领土。到艾哈迈德一世，苏丹就再没有拿过主意，皇室内的复杂人际关系使的后宫处于核心地位。到他的儿子，年轻的奥斯曼二世登基后，本来是想改变局面的，已经秘密组织了自己的军队，然而这时的近卫军已成了苏丹的对抗力量，很遗憾，最后奥斯曼二世死在近卫军手下，这是奥斯曼历史上第一次出现弑君的暴行。

奥斯曼二世被杀后，他的弟弟穆拉德被近卫军和西帕希骑兵推上了苏丹位置，是为穆拉德四世。在帝国危机的时刻，穆拉德四世用他的恐怖统治终结了军人带来的无政府状态，然而，到后来他的统治偏离了轨道，大开杀戒的后果是民众噤若寒蝉。他发动了亚洲战争征服了巴格达，并屠城，他的残忍程度使他成为了奥斯曼帝国最血腥的一位苏丹，然而他的统治也使奥斯曼帝国出现了复苏的迹象，可惜他仅在位17年，死时28岁，死后他的弟弟易卜拉欣上位。易卜拉欣在后宫长大，完全被琐碎多变的情绪和欲望所支配，他的任内决策任性，发起了多次与俄罗斯的战争，与威尼斯的战争更是久拖不决，国内民众严重不满，本来开始复苏的帝国又一次陷入衰败的境地，最后他成了第二位被下属杀死的奥斯曼苏丹，他死后，年仅七岁的儿子穆罕默德成为新的苏丹。在当时复杂的权力斗争状况下，土耳其重要的家族，科普鲁律家族出来辅佐苏丹，并开始修正专制体制弊端。

16世纪后半叶到17世纪上半叶间，奥斯曼帝国开始与欧洲国家展开深入的贸易往来，特别是伊丽莎白一世期间的英格兰与奥斯曼有了特别友好的关系。在欧洲，西班牙对英格兰形成威胁，英国与法国也不和睦，各自都希望通过奥斯曼作为自己的支持力量，但是奥斯曼面对着自己衰弱的经济，已经无法做出任何承诺。到英格兰击败西班牙的无敌舰队之后，奥斯曼态度鲜明地站在了英格兰一方。

在穆罕默德四世期间，科普鲁律父子俩，可谓是奥斯曼帝国的贵人，他们恢复了秩序，重启了战争，重新树立了奥斯曼帝国的强势地位。在欧洲与哈布斯堡王朝签署了新的和平协议，在特里克岛与威尼斯达成协议，控制了东地中海。在黑海以北出兵征战，击退了波兰、俄罗斯，实现了对乌克兰的控制。

大维齐尔艾哈迈德去世后，穆罕默德四世把这个职位给了艾哈迈德的妹夫，此人有勇无谋，征战维也纳遭到惨败，随后一系列的失败接踵而至，俄罗斯侵占了乌克兰，波兰国王撕毁了前期的和平协议，海上霸主威尼斯开始起来对抗奥斯曼，奥地利、波兰、威尼斯结成神圣同盟，共同对抗奥斯曼，17世纪的末期的奥斯曼经历了有史以来最大的失败。穆罕默德四世被放逐退位后，苏莱曼二世登基，重新找回了科普鲁律家族穆斯塔法 · 扎德任大维齐尔。然而连续胜利的欧洲情绪激昂，势不可挡。大维齐尔虽然做出了努力，但已无法抵御欧洲的进攻，很快就死于一场灾难，苏莱曼二世也在不久后去世，接任苏丹的是艾哈迈德二世。这时的威尼斯在爱琴海所向披靡，占领希俄斯岛后，艾哈迈德二世悲愤不已，很快去世，他的侄子穆斯塔法二世继位新苏丹。穆斯塔法二世豪情万丈，亲自出征，希望重振奥斯曼的雄风，但很快遭遇失败。这时的俄罗斯出现了彼得大帝，欧洲的英格兰发生了光荣革命，整个欧洲的民族国家开始兴起，基督教世界正处在强势上升的阶段，在欧洲节节败退的奥斯曼只能不断收缩，西方第一次开始全面超越东方。

俄罗斯的迅速崛起源自彼得大帝，他们向西方学习，增强了实力。这些年来西方在打造职业化军队上大力投入，提升装备水平和管理水平，而奥斯曼却始终停留在手工精良的追求上，保守的体制禁锢了创新的发生。虽然在大维齐尔科普鲁律·侯赛因的领导下，推动变革，但保守派依然顽固，最后导致大维齐尔辞职，穆斯塔法苏丹下台。不过与西方签订的卡尔诺维茨合约后，局面得到缓和，但是俄罗斯拒绝签署该协议，明摆着他们对土耳其有新的要求，两国的战事一触即发。

艾哈迈德三世继承了他的哥哥穆斯塔法二世苏丹位，这时的俄罗斯展开了两地的扩张，北方与瑞典开战，南方就是奥斯曼帝国，在北方赢得胜利的同时，南方却陷入了困境，差一点彼得大帝的命就丢在了那里。获胜的奥斯曼获得了俄罗斯���让的土地，接着奥斯曼向海上强国威尼斯开战，战争胜利赢得了大量岛屿，一举击垮了威尼斯的威胁。然而乘势再向欧洲展开的战争，奥斯曼苏丹如前面多位苏丹所遭遇的惨败一样，彻底失败，被迫将大量土地交还给神圣罗马的查理六世，并与其签订了帕萨罗维茨和约，从此土耳其在欧洲完全处于守势地位。

艾哈迈德三世统治的后半段出现了享受生活和平安逸的时代，奥斯曼也掀起了一股向西方学习的潮流，这时郁金香成为了东西方传递美好的媒介，后人将这个时代称作郁金香时期。奥斯曼人开始认识到西方的文化是西方科学进步、经济繁荣、实力强盛的根源，俄罗斯也是因为学习了西方得以强盛。苏丹还派遣使节前往西方学习，他们带回了印刷术，这对后期土耳其的发展带来深远的影响。然而这时的近卫军闲着没事儿，发起判乱，将艾哈迈德三世赶下台，由他的儿子马哈茂德一世出来任苏丹，刚刚有了一点变化的奥斯曼帝国又戛然而止。

衰落的奥斯曼开始给基督徒更好的生活空间，西方的使节也在奥斯曼有了更好的待遇。在这个时候强盛起来的俄罗斯与神圣罗马结盟开始干预波兰的内部事务，进而威胁到奥斯曼的领土，奥斯曼难以应付东西两线作战，于是寻求法国帮助，通过外交手段来解决。这时的法国是一个思想高度发展的阶段，处理外交事务游刃有余，他们发现俄罗斯的企图不仅想进入黑海，还想进一步进入地中海，因此必须阻断俄罗斯的扩张。于是法国首先设法拆散了奥地利与俄罗斯的同盟关系，进而帮助奥斯曼在战争中战胜了奥地利，又帮助奥斯曼在与俄罗斯的谈判中占据优势，粉碎了俄罗斯的阴谋，与法国的合作使奥斯曼出现了新的生机。

虽然法国希望奥斯曼参与欧洲事务，以便制衡奥地利，但是衰弱中的奥斯曼没有答应。经过了近一代人的和平之后，奥斯曼的苏丹穆斯塔法三世在位，他充满热情，也明白这时的俄罗斯由于叶卡捷琳娜登基，扩张意愿特别强烈，于是他决定与普鲁士结盟来一致对抗俄罗斯帝国。叶卡捷琳娜的企图是要建立一个大基督教帝国，她要征服希腊，支解奥斯曼，这种情况下奥斯曼不得不与俄罗斯宣战。久未作战的奥斯曼军队军纪涣散，武器落后，很快俄罗斯占领克里米亚，这时欧洲的英国与俄罗斯还站在一起，其原因是依靠俄罗斯来对抗法国，随着俄罗斯全面征战的开始，英格兰内部也发生了变化，一个强大的俄罗斯对英国是威胁，于是他们改变初衷，确定要与盟友一起保护奥斯曼。俄罗斯的征服战争也引起了普鲁士和奥地利的警觉，于是大家联合起来促俄罗斯与奥斯曼和谈，和谈的结果对奥斯曼并无过多的要求，但俄罗斯人渗透进奥斯曼以保护基督徒的利益已成为分裂奥斯曼的潜在威胁。

受法国大革命思潮的影响，奥斯曼开始进入一段“新秩序”的变革历程，这时的苏丹是塞利姆三世。与文艺复兴运动不同，法国大革命在本质上是一场与基督教分道扬镳、非宗教的，乃至带有反基督教色彩的社会剧变。这时的奥斯曼正处于宗教统治之下，两百多年来形成的世袭体制严重禁锢了社会的进步。塞利姆大力引进法国的先进思想，开办军事学校，引进军事装备，建设大型图书馆等。这些给奥斯曼带来了一线生机，当然也彻底搅动了保守派的利益，很遗憾，塞利姆和他的一大批改革派没能看到最后的胜利，就丢失了生命。改革的过程反反复复，虽然总体上国家向外开放还是迈进了一大步，但强大的消极韧性从外、从内都一直对抗着这场变革。

在奥斯曼进退维谷的状况下，马哈茂德二世成为了新的苏丹，这时世界上最强大的拿破仑法国、俄罗斯帝国成为了奥斯曼最主要的威胁，尤其是俄罗斯，他们从东正教出发，不仅要分解奥斯曼，更想收复伊斯坦布尔，俄土冲突不断升级的后果是奥斯曼失去大量土地，继续走向衰弱，而最大的变化就是希腊经过持续的民族运动获得了完全独立。也幸亏英法俄之间存在的矛盾，使得奥斯曼没有损失的更多，而且苏丹领导的变革运动也是深刻地改变了奥斯曼的未来走向。

马哈荗德二世担任苏丹后开始大力推动奥斯曼的全盘西化，他的目标是要将奥斯曼从一个构建在伊斯兰教原则上的中世纪帝国，改造成为一个基于西方世俗原则的现代立宪国家。他做得相当技巧，以防保守派反扑，重蹈赛利姆三世的覆辙。首先是秘密培育自己的新军，待其足够强大后，一举彻底清除近卫军，不留后患。然后他彻底变革了政府和宗教体系，让他们各司其职，而且权力被削弱。开办西式的军事院校，推行西化的教育体制，任用西式的公务员队伍，选派学生前往西方学习，甚至连宫廷礼仪都进行了全面替换。过去统治国家的世袭阶层习以为常的那种紧密的个人关系和忠诚体系被彻底打破。马哈茂德坚信：只有西式的体制能够挽救奥斯曼，事实证明，除了征服者默罕默德，立法者苏莱曼，他是最伟大的奥斯曼苏丹之一，他为奥斯曼继续延续百年做出了贡献。

马哈茂德的儿子迈吉德接任新的苏丹后，继续推动变革，最为引人注目的一项变革原则是，奥斯曼帝国的所有臣民，不论种族和信仰，都应享有同样的权利，改革极大地促进了与西方的贸易关系。不过改革的动作过于温和，或许是内心缺乏一种坚定的东西的缘故，推动的力度变得越来越弱，最后导致帮助推动的英国大使都离开了奥斯曼，他觉得奥斯曼已经没有希望，改革失败了。

一直以来，奥斯曼的天主教徒、东正教徒面临着歧视的境地，天主教徒的守护者法国与东正教徒的守护者俄罗斯因信仰的不同矛盾不断加剧，对奥斯曼和西方来说，俄罗斯正利用其对东正教的宗主地位发起占领奥斯曼的企图，英国人一直看得比较清楚，并向各方明确表达了这种意见，以致整个欧洲对俄罗斯的扩张都很忌惮，俄土克里米亚战争就是在这种背景下不可避免地爆发的，好在奥斯曼苏丹的明确态度，与英法结盟对抗俄罗斯，从而使战争取得了全面胜利。

克里米亚战争结束后，在英国人的推动下，奥斯曼帝国发布了改革宪章，前所未有地明确阐述道，奥斯曼帝国全体臣民不论宗教信仰、种族和语言，均在税收、教育、司法、财产所有权、担任公职、参选职位等方面，享有自由和平等的地位，然而在法国的干扰下，改革得到有效的推动。不过说到底还是阿卜杜勒 · 迈吉德苏丹不懂管理国家手段，其父马哈茂德留下来的良好治理措施未得到延续，反倒产生了高企的债务水平，使得国家难以为继。阿卜杜勒 · 迈吉德之后是阿卜杜勒 · 阿齐兹，再往后是穆拉德，始终没有扭转高企的债务水平，经济上出现通货膨胀，加上出现饥荒，整个国家处于一片内乱之中，帝国已从有序的专制正走向无序的专制，随时面临着崩溃。好在马哈茂德二世时期一部分精英阶层日渐成熟。

这时欧洲的大国都已经开始意识到俄罗斯对奥斯曼帝国的企图，它不断在土耳其的欧洲部分巴尔干、罗马尼亚、保加利亚等制造事端，促其独立或自治，在土耳其的亚洲部分也同样用武力占领其土地。当俄罗斯的战舰逼近伊斯坦布尔的时候，英国的议会终于做出了参战决定，阻止了俄国侵略势头，在德国首相俾斯麦的协调下，召开欧洲六国会议，签订了柏林条约，保护了奥斯曼的领土完整，使其有了进一步苟延残喘的机会，然而这时的苏丹阿卜杜勒 · 哈米德，依然没有意识到西方对奥斯曼推进民主宪政的期待，阳奉阴违，顽固地坚持其独裁统治，这使得奥斯曼最后的崩溃已无可避免。

阿卜杜勒·哈米德苏丹是个疑神疑鬼的人，他建立了自己的宫殿远离众人，过着隐居的生活，同时他派出大量的密探帮助他掌握外面的情况。虽然嘴里说着要继承前辈的变革，但事实上专制的意识越来越强。加之克里米亚战争期间从英法引进了电报技术，更使得监控无时不在、无处不在，整个就是一个警察国家。不过专制也使得他快速推进了一些变革，包括追求技术现代化，司法和教育的现代化，他推进了伊斯坦布尔大学的建立，为国家培养了大量公务人员。推动现代化也带来了巨额债务，幸亏苏丹适时发布了《穆哈兰姆敕令》，使得现代化的建设得以顺利进行。在整个推进过程中，苏丹奉行孤立主义外交政策，主要开始远离英法等西方国家，而与俄罗斯和德国走得较近，英法由此变得担忧。于是有目的地促成黑山、保加利亚等奥斯曼地区的自治与独立，伴随着欧洲民族运动的兴起，这一地区的变化也是风起云涌，既促使奥斯曼回到西方主导的轨道上来，更是遏制了俄罗斯等的扩张企图。

债务缠身的奥斯曼，加上阿卜杜勒·哈米德苏丹糟糕的外交政策，使得奥斯曼在失去欧洲的基督教领土外，非洲的突尼斯也丢了，埃及也基本上丢了，而英国成了那里的主要控制人。在这种情况下，苏丹希望能够利用他的哈理发角色，保住亚洲部分，因为在这些地区的民众对伊斯兰广泛认同。这其中只有亚美尼亚这个特殊的地区信奉基督教，为了消灭这一部分基督徒，苏丹展开了欺骗性的对外政策，编造谎言对亚美尼亚人实施大屠杀，如果没有英国人的干预，亚美尼亚真有可能被灭族。遗憾的是西方世界各国并不和睦，对亚美尼亚也都抱有各自的目的，使得奥斯曼没有受到严厉的惩戒，得以继续苟延残喘。

这时奥斯曼在欧洲只与德国保持的良好的关系，德国为了亚洲的利益要修一条铁路从柏林到达波斯湾，而这惊动了欧洲的其他国家英国、俄罗斯，他们都提出了各自的措施，以应对这条铁路对他们带来的威胁。接下来是克里特岛的归属问题，欧洲国家因为不同的利益，意见不一，最后算是达成了最好的协议，把它归还给了希腊。走到这一步，欧洲部分只剩下马其顿还未确定归属。马其顿情况比较复杂，它由不同宗教、不同种族的人混杂地生活在这里，而经过这些年的变革，已经形成了有组织的反对派。包括马其顿在内的整个土耳其一批崇尚现代化的年轻人成长起来了，这里就有一位未来的引人注目的人物穆斯塔法·凯末尔。这时虽然欧洲各大国都在打自己的如意小算盘，但英国提出了积极的措施，加上马其顿内部追求自主的愿望已经形成了主流，最后逼迫阿卜杜勒·哈米德苏丹不得不重新恢复宪法。而这又加重了保守派和变革派的对立，最后触发内乱，表面一套背后一套的阿卜杜勒·哈米德苏丹被议会废黜。

由于掌握了军队，统一与进步委员会，也就是青年土耳其党成为了奥斯曼的主人，苏丹的传统权力被终止，众议院成为了权力最大的机构，对于不满意的行政机构，他们的职务将被免除，奥斯曼进入到宪政时代。随后还产生了反对派，以及反对同盟，但是一党独大的特征明显，内部社会依然动荡。实际上奥斯曼这个称呼已经没有意义了，由于民族主义的影响，土耳其民族取代奥斯曼多民族国家，奥斯曼这个综合体也将彻底瓦解。另外一个严峻的问题是这个新兴的国家是伊斯兰文明，还是西方变得模糊，这涉及到用什么来维持对国家的忠诚，关于土耳其民族，大家找到它与突厥民族的关系。
在社会不稳定的情况下，外部也趁机捣乱，几乎同时奥斯曼帝国与意大利、希腊、塞尔维亚、保加利亚展开战争。而且均告失败，后来只是因为这些国家之间内讧，使奥斯曼找回了一些领土，没有那么难堪。

羸弱的奥斯曼在这个时候，即欧洲国家不断矛盾冲突时，保持中立，或许还有它的未来，而恰恰在这个时候一批激进分子裹挟着土耳其统一和进步党的三位巨头领导下选择了站队，实际上他们是想选择一个同盟保护自己，他们选择站在了德国和奥地利一边，成为了同盟国，与英法俄组成的同盟国成了对抗关系，可惜他们赞错了队。英国虽然极力主张奥斯曼选择中立，也未达到目的。实际上，一战爆发后，奥斯曼仍然有机会选择中立，然而或许是战场上的局部胜利冲昏了头脑，后来奥斯曼先是在北高加索、苏伊士运河等地大败，后来阿拉伯又闹独立，英法等协约国占领了耶路撒冷，并将土耳其人赶出了叙利亚，伊斯坦布尔也被占领，到此奥斯曼走到了亡国的边缘。好在穆斯塔法·凯默尔领导的的民族抵抗运动取得了一些胜利，也战略性的撤出了一些地方，由此保住了土耳其基本尊严，1923 年 10 月 29 日土耳其共和国成立，奥斯曼灭亡。

从奥斯曼一世建立帝国，到凯默尔建立土耳其共和国，共计600多年，在这漫长的历史的前200多年，一路征服行动使帝国达到顶峰，成为了不可一世的世界帝国。而且他的包容性使得这个多民族、多宗教信仰的国家保持着极大和睦，一直令整个西方胆颤。在其后的300多年，它却一路往下衰败。其原因就是依靠征服强大起来的国家没有很好地建立自己的经济基础，迅速增长的人口使得国家陷入困境。从此内乱不断，特别是军队出现的不稳定的态势。奥斯曼的苏丹意识到了这些问题必须实施了改革，特别是到了法国大革命时期，现代的思想对奥斯曼产生了极大的冲击，改革必然要发展教育，培养一代新人才是奥斯曼的希望。然而日益强大起来的西方以及俄罗斯帝国开始对的奥斯曼的生存环境越来越形成威胁。幸好他们充分利用了西方国家之间，西方与俄罗斯之间的矛盾，使是奥斯曼得以苟延残喘。事实上真正使奥斯曼走向灭亡的是奥斯曼苏丹建立起的教育体系，因为它培养了一大批年轻的土耳其人，而这些人最后成了奥斯曼的掘墓人。

[Serdar Sincer · Rating 5 out of 5]

Her sayfasında başlangıcından itibaren imparatorluk kafamda kuruluyor. Keyifle okuyorum. Yazarın anlatım dili muhteşem.

[Bernard Sintobin · Rating 5 out of 5]

Formidabel boek!
Patrick Balfour, Lord Kinross, beschrijft (in 1976) de geschiedenis van het Ottomaanse rijk op een exhaustieve wijze, zeer systematisch, vlot leesbaar en met de blik op de betekenis van elke fase voor het volk, het land, Europa, Azië, de Islam, het Christendom en zoveel meer… Kortom, dit is een geschiedenisboek zoals het moet zijn. Feiten, verbanden, nuances, objectieve commentaar en steeds met de blik op de wereld waarin dit rijk zich ontwikkelde en de rol die het daarin speelde.

Fascinerende lectuur, bijzonder leerrijk!

Er zit teveel in om hier te etaleren, toch enkele topics:
- fascinerend hoe het Ottomaans rijk de fakkel overneemt van het West-Romeins, zeg maar Byzantijns, rijk als globale actor, met de voortzetting van de waarden en de dynamiek van haar voorganger, o.a. de ruimte die het liet aan het Grieks-orthodoxe christendom om zich verder te ontwikkelen;
- de voor mij minder bekende rol die het rijk gespeeld heeft in een lange periode van islamitische eenheid van Istanbul over Bagdad, Damascus, Caïro tot en met Tunis;
- het belang van het Ottomaanse rijk als bufferstaat in de geopolitieke spanningen en evenwichten in het Europa van de 17de tot begin 20ste eeuw en de rol van eerst de Fransen en later de Britten, tot in de interne politieke cenakels van het rijk;
- de merkwaardige formule van het inzetten van christen slaven in het elitekorps (de Janitsaren), de harem (zelfs het nageslacht van de sultans was de vrucht van een merkwaardige vermenging!) en de top van de administratie (tot en met de viziers, zeg maar de eerste ministers), waarmee gedurende zeer lange tijd de negatieve impact van de erfelijkheid van de monarchiën en van de adel, zoals dominant in West-Europa, kon vermeden worden;
- de bijzonder interessante beschrijving van de verschillende fases van het inrichten van de organisatie en de administratie van dit grote rijk; de gedeeltelijke openheid voor de verlichting en de moderniteit van West-Europa maar ook de remmingen eigen aan de dominante plaats van de Islam en de dwingende bepalingen van de heilige boeken van de Islam.

[Spencer Lambert · Rating 3 out of 5]

Overall, this an accessible history covering a vast scope of time & territory that western history rarely captures.

Because of the lack of western attention, the sources that derive it are heavily westernized, so in regards to objectivity- it likely is not the best - but I don't think that should diminish it's value.

Coming off the immense "The New Roman Empire: A history of Byanztium" by Anthony Kaldellis, this book is a much higher level - less primary source based, and more layman history style. One of the frustrating elements to me, was it's scant tether tying the Roman Empire's institutions and bureaucracy to the hybridized ottoman culture (especially in bureaucracy) that was created.

Very similar to the history of the new roman empire - this book covers both the rise & fall of an empire. For two and a half centuries the Ottoman empire expanded at the strength of ten consecutive Sultans who ruled actively & (somewhat) wisely before spending centuries declining. Some of the most interesting elements of Ottoman history I got out of this:

- The Janissaries and slave culture, creating a fiercely loyal, meritocratic class that was no swayed by generational privilege (until it was corrupted).

- The preference of the Greek Orthodox Cristians in many places to prefer the protection of a Moslem ruler with no desire to convert them, over a Latin Pope.

- General historical trends of decline, with states growing more conservative, insular, and corrupt - therefore hastening their own decline.

- The naval battles of the Mediterranean, and how difficult & engineering heavy late-Medieval sieges were.

- Nationalistic fervor in the Balkans in the early 1900s leading to independence juxtaposed by the ease with which the Ottomans took the Balkans originally.

- How involved the European powers were in the Ottoman state towards it's end, propping it up, and cutting it apart alternately to gain power themselves or prevent power to each other.

Overall, this is a beast of a book, but a solid sequel to a reader who has delved into the Roman Empire& wanted to follow the history of Constantinople towards it's modern conclusion as Istanbul.

[Bronze · Rating 4 out of 5]

An absolutely thorough history of the Ottoman Empire from conception to ending. If you want to know what the Sultans were doing at any point of the six hundred year history, this is the book for you. Lord Kinross leaves no stone unexamined and is absolutely exacting in his details. A great book to give you an introduction to the empire, as well as a complete examination.

Two small complaints. First, once the English start interacting with the Ottomans, Lord Kinross gives them a bit too much coverage. While I have no doubt Lord Kinross knows more than I on the subject, it appears that he is showing deference to his own forbearers. My belief is that the English were not as influential on the empire as Kinross indicates. Along with this, the history of the Ottomans in this book is almost exclusively European focused. While I understand that's where the Ottomans major rivals were, you would have no idea what was going on with the Ottomans eastern borders for hundreds of years at a time. The second complaint is that events you would expect to have a lot of coverage get shifted into a few small pages. For example, WWI and the subsequent dissolution of the empire is covered in less than 10 pages. For a book that goes into 600+ pages of detail, you would think there would be more discussion of the empire falling apart.

Overall, a great Euro-centric view of the Ottoman Empire throughout their entire history. It just falls short in non-European dominions of the empire, as well as glossing over the most well-known events. Good for those who already know about the empire and those that are completely new.

[Savannah Jordan · Rating 4 out of 5]

The book begins in approximately 1300 with Osman, the leader of the Ottoman Turks and the founder of the Ottoman Empire. It ends with WWI and the dismemberment of that Empire. It is well-written but not, in my opinion, as well-written as the histories of David McCullough or Ron Chernow. I found the author’s switching between archaic and modern names for locations very confusing. I did, however, learn more from this book than from any of McCullough’s or Chernow’s book. Obviously from the start and end date of the empire, it covers a vast number of years. But also the history of this Empire is far more complex than the histories of most nations. The Ottoman Empire’s objective to control not only a substantial part of Asia but also Europe led it into innumerable wars and innumerable treaties with several nations. Until I read this book, I did not realize how much of Europe (the Balkans and Hungary) was controlled by this Empire and how its conquest of Austria and Italy was barely thwarted by the West. The book also forced me to study the geography the region. Lastly, it made me aware of the culture of the people. It was quite brutal. When a Sultan did not like the performance of an adviser or a general, he had them executed. When a new Sultan assumed control of the empire, he had all his brothers and all his brothers’ male children executed. Often times, a Sultan would watch the execution of his own children. But of course, it is difficult to say that they were more brutal than what was occurring at the same time in the West. It is worth the read. I rated it 4 stars on Amazon.

[Sonny Finch · Rating 3 out of 5]

A brief (622 pages to cover 624years) history of the Ottoman empire.

Lots if good information and some entertaining presentation of the battles and politics and advances of the Ottomans. Kinross does an excellent job of presenting the Ottomans successes and failures, the days when they dominated eastern Europe through superior technology and diplomacy and when they fell behind, dogged by poor leadership and economic development.

The book could be much better organized however. With the story moving through time so quickly, hundreds of characters are introduced. For example he author often refers to both Murad I and Murad III as "Murad". If there were indications as to what years each chapter incompased or what sultan was in power on each page it would dramatically help the readability if such a collection of complex events.

I had to have Wikipedia and a dictionary open constantly to navigate this book. (Great vocabulary builder though!)

A knowledge of European history, especially from 1700-1900 will be especially useful here.