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پس از هگل: ‫فلسفه آلمانی ۱۸۴۰-۱۹۰۰

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نیمه دوم قرن نوزدهم در آلمان یکی از خلاق‌ترین و انقلابی‌ترین دوره‌های فلسفه مدرن به شمار می‌رود. با این حال، این دوره در میان آلمانی‌زبانان اندک و در میان انگلیسی‌زبانان بسی اندک‌تر مطالعه و بررسی شده است. هدف کتاب حاضر معرفی فلسفه این دوره به خواننده انگلیسی‌زبان است. جهت اطمینان از گستردگیِ پوششِ تاریخی، و حفظ تمرکز فلسفی، این کتاب نه بر اساس موضوعات و متفکران که بر اساس مناقشات سامان یافته است.

این کتاب تاریخی مجمل و در عین حال بی‌نظیر از فلسفه آلمانی در نیمه دوم قرن نوزدهم است. در این کتاب با متفکرانی مواجه می‌شویم که در زبان فارسی نامی از آن‌ها نشنیده‌ایم؛ متفکرانی که، علی‌رغم گمنامی، چه فلسفه زمان خویش و چه فلسفه معاصر را عمیقاً تحت تأثیر قرار داده‌اند.

پس از هگل به عنوان یکی از آثار متأثر بیزر روشی بدیع نیز پی گرفته که واجد نقاط قوت عدیده‌ای است که آن را از سایر کتب تاریخ فلسفه متمایز می‌سازد. او با تمرکز بر مناقشات، به جای پرداختن به چهره‌ها کوشیده است اثرش را از خطاهای تاریخ‌های فلسفهٔ متعارف در امان نگه دارد.

344 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 2014

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About the author

Frederick C. Beiser

31 books102 followers
Frederick C. Beiser, one of the leading scholars of German Idealism, is a Professor of Philosophy at Syracuse University. Prior to joining Syracuse, he was a member of the faculty at Indiana University, Bloomington where he received a 1999-2000 NEH Faculty Fellowship. He has also taught at the University of Colorado at Boulder, Harvard and Yale University. Beiser earned his DPhil. degree from Oxford University under the direction of Charles Taylor and Isaiah Berlin.

Beiser's first book, The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte (Harvard, 1987) was widely influential in revising the commonly held, but notorious accounts of German Idealism. In this book, Beiser sought to reconstruct the background of German Idealism through the narration of the story of the Spinoza or Pantheism controversy. Consequently, a great many figures, whose importance was hardly recognized by the English speaking philosophers, were given their proper due.
Beiser has also written on the German Romantics and 19th century British philosophy.

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Displaying 1 - 12 of 12 reviews
Profile Image for C. Varn.
Author 3 books400 followers
April 27, 2016
Beiser may be the strongest writer on the history of German philosophy, particularly of periods that are not particularly well-translated into English and whose importance has been underemphasized in light of a few key thinkers of the period, such as Marx and Nietzsche. Beiser assumes knowledge of Kant, Hegel, and Nietzsche, but you can learn on Trendelenburg and Lotze, the Neo-kantianism, Dilthey and the historical paradigm, Duhring and the beginnings of positivism, and Hartmann's bleak world view.

Beiser keeps a overwhelming amount of German names and texts that are often untranslated contextualized, not by going purely chronologically, but by focusing on the key controversies of German philosophy "After Hegel (and Fichte)" but before the Vienna circle and carnap. This also puts the era of study mostly in the transition from 1848 to mainstay of the Bismarkian reich.

Particularly in the materialism and relationship to science chapters, one finds that the post-analytic/continental split controversies have already been played out and forgotten between 1850 and 1890. Indeed, even the presses of institutional drift and declining support for the humanities in a capitalist nation-state are mirrored in a way that will feel eerily familiar. Highly informative, easy to read with an extensive working bibliography for which to learn more, Beiser has served German philosophy well.
Profile Image for Jesse.
147 reviews56 followers
September 28, 2022
Very readable, just like his "Fate of Reason", but the stakes feel much lower when the forgotten philosophers aren't in dialog with Kant, just arguing amongst themselves.
Profile Image for Plato .
154 reviews36 followers
February 28, 2023
Was required reading for the next part of my Kant class. Really good writing and made me really interested in the later half of 19th Century German philosophy.
Profile Image for UChicagoLaw.
620 reviews209 followers
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December 30, 2014
Beiser, who is one the greatest living historians of German philosophy of the 18th and 19th centuries, here recaptures an important period in the history of modern philosophy largely overshadowed by Hegel, Marx, and Nietzsche. What is the relevance of philosophy in a world in which the sciences seem to make all the progress? That central question, one still debated today, was a lively point of contestation after the collapse of Hegel’s idealist metaphysics. The book is highly readable and does not presuppose significant technical knowledge of philosophical debates. But for those with an interest in contemporary philosophy, one will have a remarkable sense of déjà vu reading Beiser’s well-informed account of the debates that occupied German philosophers in the mid-to-late 19th-century. —Brian Leiter
Profile Image for Nathan.
194 reviews53 followers
September 10, 2019
This is just such a cool book. Beiser has done the world a huge favour by illustrating a fascinatingly rich and complex history. Hitherto, Lowith’s text has been the de facto text on 19thC philosophy. He literally wrote the book on it. A wonderful piece of scholarship in its own right - passing the torch of the history of philosophy - nevertheless, Marx and Hegel‘s enormity just overshadows everything. Take any course on this period, and Löwith is the narrative that you are going to get. However, there are many movements that influence phenomenology, existentialism, and analytic philosophy (value theory, normative ethics, and the whatnot) just cannot be properly understood without at least understanding the general details of Neo-Kantianism (to name one). It’s just not gonna happen. Philosophy is a continuum. So, props to Beiser.
342 reviews1 follower
August 13, 2019
This seems to be a more "relaxed" or "loose" work of Beiser- instead of giving a generally linear account of the state of German philosophy in the latter half of the 19th century, he focuses on the big controversies within the intellectual sphere at the time and extrapolates the arguments of different philosophers in that context. As always with Beiser, an interesting read
Profile Image for AmirMahdi Jamshidiha.
8 reviews3 followers
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June 29, 2025
[این را در بهخوان نوشتم، در روزهایی که دسترسی به اینترنت بین‌الملی را قطع کرده بودند، و حالا همان را اینجا می‌گذارم:]

همین‌طوری آخرشبی، وسط مرور خاطره‌ها، گوشیِ بددست قدیمی‌ام را روشن کردم بهش ور بروم، چشمم خورد به اپ بهخوان. دیدم در این وانفسا (که مرگ هم بر اسرائیل)، حالا که اینترنت ملّی‌ست و دست آدم از گودریدز کوتاه، می‌توانم در بهخوان ثبت کنم کتابی را که امروز تمام کردم. چندخطی هم می‌نویسم برایش.

از عنوان و زیرعنوان پیداست از چه چیز و چه دوره‌ای حرف می‌زند: فلسفه در آلمان، در نیمه‌ی دوم قرن نوزدهم، یا دقیق‌ترش از ۱۸۴۰، حدوداً ده سالی بعدِ مرگ هگل، تا ۱۹۰۰. به این معنی، کتاب در دسته‌ی کتاب‌های «تاریخ فلسفه» می‌گنجد، اما فرق دارد با روال معمول در باقی کتاب‌های این دسته. رسم است متفکرها را و ایده‌های هرکدام را به ترتیب زمانی پشت‌سرهم ردیف می‌کنند و این می‌شود تاریخ فلسفه، ولی بیزر به‌جای اینکه متفکرمحور پیش برود، موضوع‌محور، یا، دقیق‌تر اگر بگوییم، مناقشه‌محور پیش می‌رود: پرسشی را می‌گذارد وسط، زمینه و علل فلسفی و سیاسی و اجتماعی شکل گرفتنش را طرح می‌کند و بعد، پاسخ‌های مختلفِ این‌وری و آن‌وری اهالی فلسفه‌ی آن زمانه (۱۸۴۰‌ـ‌۱۹۰۰) به آن پرسش‌ها را می‌آورد و سرشان بحث می‌کند. متن کتاب پر از ارجاع به منابع دست‌اول است، با تسلط ستودنی بیزر بر منابع. مزیّت دیگر کار هم دست گذاشتن روی صداهایی کمتر شنیده‌شده و فیلسوف‌هایی‌ست که کمتر اسم در کرده‌اند.

دوره‌ای که بیزر رویش دست گذاشته، دوره‌ای‌ست در تاریخ فلسفه که کمتر به آن توجه شده، چه در ایران و چه در جهان، و ازقضا دوره‌ی بسیار مهمی‌ست. هگل مُرده، فلسفه‌ی نظرورزانه‌ی ایدئالیسم آلمانی کم‌وبیش به آخر خط رسیده، علوم تجربی، خصوصاً روان‌شناسی، شدیداً درحال پیشرفت‌اند، اوضاع سیاسی‌ـ‌اجتماعیِ اروپا شلوغ‌پلوغ است، آرام‌آرام تردیدهای جدی دارد به ایده‌ی روشنگری و اندیشه‌ی ترقی (The Idea of Progress) وارد می‌شود، و خلاصه اوضاع بحرانی‌ست. فلسفه هم در این نیم‌قرن اوضاعی بحرانی دارد. اولینِ بحران‌هایی هم که پیش‌روی فلسفه است «بحران هویت فلسفی»ست: با پیشرفت علوم، دیگر چه نیازی به فلسفه داریم؟ فلسفه اصلاً به چه دردی می‌خورد؟ روش و موضوع و هدف فلسفه چیست؟ بعد از بحث درباره‌ی این بحران در فصل اول، بیزر چهار مناقشه‌ی دیگر را هم طرح می‌کند و هرکدام را، جداگانه و مفصل در یک فصل، می‌کاود: مناقشه‌ی ماده‌باوری (همه‌چیز ماده است؟)؛ مناقشه‌ی «نخواهیم دانست» (علم تجربی یا شناخت تجربی محدودیت دارد یا ندارد؟)؛ مناقشه‌ی تاریخ‌گرایی (استقلال تاریخ و علوم تاریخی (GeistesWissenschaften) توأمان از زیر یوغ فلسفه و علوم تجربی)؛ و مناقشه‌ی بدبینی (زندگی ارزش زیستن دارد؟ بودن یا نبودن؟ نبودن؟).

پا گرفتن جامعه‌شناسی، جامعه‌شناسی کلاسیک، بالأخص جامعه‌شناسی کلاسیک و اولیه‌ی آلمانی، یعنی کارهای وبر و زیمل، به یک معنی ریشه در همین زمینه و زمانه دارد. من هم برای همین به سراغش رفتم در اصل و کتاب عمیقاً برایم راهگشا بود و تلقّی تازه‌ای از آن زمینه و زمانه برایم ایجاد کرد. فقط یک کتاب دیگر می‌شناسم در فارسی که به این دوره پرداخته: از هگل تا نیچه‌ی کارل لوویت. حسن مرتضوی ترجمه‌اش کرده و نایاب است. خود بیزر هم در مقدمه‌ی کتاب از آن حرف می‌زند و نقدهایی را که به آن وارد است می‌گوید. از استاد نازنینی قرضش گرفته‌ام و امید که عمری باشد تا این‌یکی را هم به‌زودی‌ بخوانم.

جا دارد بگویم دست‌وپنجه‌ات درد نکند آقای بیزر (یا بایزر، که یحتمل تلفظ درست‌تر این دومی‌ست). طوری کتاب نوشته‌ای آدم حظّ می‌کند از این انسجام و دقت و ظرافت. تخصص این آقای بیزر همین فلسفه‌ی آلمانی‌ست و همه‌ی همّ پژوهشی و علمی و آکادمیکش متمرکز است روی فلسفه‌ی آلمانی. دلبری می‌کنند این‌ها که تمرکز می‌کنند روی تکه‌ای خاص از گستره‌ی عظیم دانش آدمیزادی و تک‌تک کارها و مقاله‌ها و کتاب‌هایشان در ربط‌ونسبتی معنی‌دار باهم است. بیزر درباره‌ی دوره‌ی کانت تا فیشته کتاب دارد، درباره‌ی هگل کتاب دارد، درباره‌ی رمانتیسیسم اولیه/ینا کتاب دارد، درباره‌ی زیبایی‌شناسی آلمانی کتاب دارد، خود این کتاب هم که هست، و تازه این‌ها فقط آن‌هایی‌ست که به فارسی ترجمه شده. امروز با مصیبت و پروکسی توانستم چند دقیقه‌ای وصل شوم به تلگرام، کتاب جدیدش را که همین چند ماه پیش چاپ کرده دانلود کنم از یک بات دانلود کتاب: پوزیتیویسم آلمانی اولیه. چقدر می‌تواند کتاب‌های یک نویسنده خواندنی باشد؟

و نباید ناگفته باقی گذاشت این را که اگر ترجمه‌ی درجه‌یک سید مسعود آذرفام نبود، یحتمل کتاب، این‌قدری که حالا من را گرفته، نمی‌گرفت. دست‌وپنجه‌ی تو هم درد نکند سید مسعود آذرفام که دقیق و روان و تروتمیز و یکدست ترجمه کرده‌ای کتاب را. دردوبلایت بخورد توی سر آن‌ها که کتاب‌های مهم را برمی‌دارند و با ترجمه‌ی بد تحویل جامعه‌ی علوم‌انسانی ایران می‌دهند، مثلاً مترجمی متأسفانه نام‌آشنا و ترجمه‌اش از کتاب دیگری که این‌روزها هم‌زمان با خواندن پس از هگل خواندم: فلسفه‌ی قاره‌ایِ سایمون کریچلی.

شاید سوال پیش بیاید که چه ربطی دارد خواندن این کتاب به احوال این‌روزها، که خب جواب دارم برایش ولی جایش اینجا نیست. تهران مانده‌ام فعلاً. امشب صدا نمی‌آید. وقت خوابیدن است.
Profile Image for Tomislav.
114 reviews24 followers
November 26, 2022
Short, very interesting book, quite dense but easy to read. Beiser discusses works of philosophers who are less studied today – he deliberately omits Nietzsche and explains Schopenhauer only as an introduction for his followers and critics. It goes beyond the usual simplifications about the era and focuses on metaphysics, epistemology and Lebensphilosophie, ignoring other discussions with the exception of one chapter dealing with the study of history. I’m not sure the title is the best choice since Hegel and his legacy are not an important reference point. It is mostly about less speculative idealists and materialists who became prominent as Hegel’s philosophy went out of fashion.

The first part deals with the definition and purpose of philosophy, the ancient question of how are the professors of philosophy supposed to earn their salary. After speculative idealism and foundationalism lost their attraction there were several propositions for future direction. Some tried to revive the organic view by focusing on methodology of sciences and searching for a new metaphysics to follow their empirical results. Neo-Kantians went even further in the direction of empirical science, but broadened their program due to the rising fame of Schopenhauer who departed in the opposite direction, trying to build an intuitive, non-transcendent metaphysics along with the appropriate ethics. Young Hegelians advocated the Enlightenment-inspired idea of philosophy as a radical critique of traditional metaphysics, politics and morality.

The second chapter is about the materialism controversy, the reignited conflict between the rising modern science and religion which lost much its remaining authority with the decline of speculative idealism. It continues with the problems of materialist metaphysics and growing criticisms of naïve realist epistemology, focusing on Emil du Bois-Reymond views on limits of science, nature of matter and consciousness – and different responses of his contemporaries. To keep it short, Beiser sticks to classic areas of epistemology and metaphysics, largely ignoring the new questions of evolution and anthropology. The book also mostly ignores social and political themes, but there is a lengthy chapter dealing with the study of history which was becoming a serious discipline. It raised numerous questions about scientific objectivity, methodological autonomy, historical determinism, relativism and the relation between philosophy and history. While earlier philosophers were dismissive of its scientific study, believing that they can aprioristically deduct anything that is important about human history, new positivists insisted that it should be modeled after methods of natural sciences, focusing on general laws. The last chapter deals with pessimism controversy, heated public debate about the value of life. It presents critics of Schopenhauer – Neo-Kantians and Eugen Dühring, who objected to his metaphysical assumptions, eudaemonistic calculations and political quietism – and his successor, Eduard von Hartmann, who attempted to construct an improved version of pessimism. Unlike previous chapters it discusses more worldly topics such as work, social conditions, emotional life and aesthetic enjoyment.

This is an excellent, very readable book. It presents interesting ideas from philosophers that mostly aren’t well know today, and a good overview of intellectual life of the era. Even if you are primarily interested their more famous contemporaries such as Schopenhauer and Nietzsche this book provides an excellent explanation of their context.
Profile Image for Barry Faulk.
5 reviews4 followers
March 19, 2023
Beiser is a master of exposition; this is a clearly written survey of largely obscure German thinkers and intellectual debates. However, the philosophical controversies that Beiser recounts, in particular the philsophical pessimism debate, are clearly relevant to our moment. Beiser introduced me to a host of thinkers I knew little about (Olga Plumacher, Hermann Cohen, Eugen Duhring), and provided me with new insights about philosophers that I thought I knew well. (Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, and Kant). This is no dry-as-dust tome, but very lively reading.
102 reviews
September 1, 2025
Esse livro poderia receber cinco estrelas. Elegante, conciso, informativo, necessário. Beiser é um acadêmico fora de série. A nota não é maior por um motivo simples. Beiser muitas vezes da um grande foco a autores de importância mínima. Isso tem um valor acadêmico enorme, mas diminui o valor da leitura para simples estudantes.
Profile Image for Vapula.
45 reviews28 followers
November 18, 2023
Fairly good, the work honestly felt a bit short but nonetheless stands as a nice survey of the time. The title is a bit misleading insofar as it suggests a reading that centers on Hegel more than is to be actually found in the work.
Profile Image for noblethumos.
749 reviews76 followers
April 4, 2023
"After Hegel" is a book written by Frederick Beiser, a prominent scholar of German Idealism and the history of philosophy. The book was first published in 1987 and is a study of the development of German philosophy in the wake of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.

In the book, Beiser argues that the post-Hegelian era in German philosophy was marked by a crisis of confidence and a sense of intellectual malaise. He explores the various attempts by philosophers to respond to this crisis and to find new directions for philosophy.

Beiser examines the work of a number of important philosophers of the period, including Arthur Schopenhauer, Ludwig Feuerbach, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Søren Kierkegaard. He shows how these thinkers sought to move beyond Hegelianism and to develop new philosophical perspectives that could respond to the challenges of their time.

One of the key themes of the book is the tension between idealism and materialism in post-Hegelian philosophy. Beiser argues that many philosophers of the period were grappling with the problem of how to reconcile the idealist legacy of Hegelianism with the growing importance of empirical science and the natural world.

Overall, "After Hegel" is a significant work of scholarship that provides valuable insights into the development of German philosophy in the nineteenth century. The book is an important resource for anyone interested in the history of philosophy, especially the development of German Idealism and its aftermath.

GPT
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