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The Emperor Who Never Was: Dara Shukoh in Mughal India
The definitive biography of the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan, whose death at the hands of his younger brother Aurangzeb changed the course of South Asian history.
Dara Shukoh was the eldest son of Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal emperor, best known for commissioning the Taj Mahal as a mausoleum for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. Although the Mughals did not practice primogeniture, Dara, a Sufi who studied Hindu thought, was the presumed heir to the throne and prepared himself to be India’s next ruler. In this exquisite narrative biography, the most comprehensive ever written, Supriya Gandhi draws on archival sources to tell the story of the four brothers—Dara, Shuja, Murad, and Aurangzeb—who with their older sister Jahanara Begum clashed during a war of succession. Emerging victorious, Aurangzeb executed his brothers, jailed his father, and became the sixth and last great Mughal. After Aurangzeb’s reign, the Mughal Empire began to disintegrate. Endless battles with rival rulers depleted the royal coffers, until by the end of the seventeenth century Europeans would start gaining a foothold along the edges of the subcontinent.
Historians have long wondered whether the Mughal Empire would have crumbled when it did, allowing European traders to seize control of India, if Dara Shukoh had ascended the throne. To many in South Asia, Aurangzeb is the scholastic bigot who imposed a strict form of Islam and alienated his non-Muslim subjects. Dara, by contrast, is mythologized as a poet and mystic. Gandhi’s nuanced biography gives us a more complex and revealing portrait of this Mughal prince than we have ever had.
Dara Shukoh was the eldest son of Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal emperor, best known for commissioning the Taj Mahal as a mausoleum for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. Although the Mughals did not practice primogeniture, Dara, a Sufi who studied Hindu thought, was the presumed heir to the throne and prepared himself to be India’s next ruler. In this exquisite narrative biography, the most comprehensive ever written, Supriya Gandhi draws on archival sources to tell the story of the four brothers—Dara, Shuja, Murad, and Aurangzeb—who with their older sister Jahanara Begum clashed during a war of succession. Emerging victorious, Aurangzeb executed his brothers, jailed his father, and became the sixth and last great Mughal. After Aurangzeb’s reign, the Mughal Empire began to disintegrate. Endless battles with rival rulers depleted the royal coffers, until by the end of the seventeenth century Europeans would start gaining a foothold along the edges of the subcontinent.
Historians have long wondered whether the Mughal Empire would have crumbled when it did, allowing European traders to seize control of India, if Dara Shukoh had ascended the throne. To many in South Asia, Aurangzeb is the scholastic bigot who imposed a strict form of Islam and alienated his non-Muslim subjects. Dara, by contrast, is mythologized as a poet and mystic. Gandhi’s nuanced biography gives us a more complex and revealing portrait of this Mughal prince than we have ever had.
340 pages, Kindle Edition
Published January 7, 2020
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About the author
Supriya Gandhi
2 books9 followersSupriya Gandhi is a historian of Mughal India and Senior Lecturer in Religious Studies at Yale University. She grew up in India, received her Ph.D. from Harvard University, and also studied in Iran and Syria. She is a recipient of fellowships from the Fulbright and Mellon foundations.
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March 28, 2020
“Dara Shukoh, tell us, are you a secret Sikh?” And then, “So you believe, frankly, Prince, that the Hindu faith is as valid as the Muslim faith?” Dara Shukoh eloquently defends his ideas. “Who cares which door you open to come into the light?” he asks. Finally, the prosecutor orders Dara to present his ring. Damning evidence. It is engraved with “Allah” on one side and “Prabhu,” a Hindu word for the divine, on the other. He snaps, “Prince Dara, it is unpalatably clear . . . that you strayed, long, long ago, from the pure path of Islam.” Shortly after the trial, Aurangzeb orders armed slaves to snuff out his brother’s life. -------
It was Hamid Dabashi’s review of this book in The Observer, which blew me away.
Hamid Sahab writes: Dara Shukoh or Aurangzeb? India, the very idea of it, at a fateful crossroad: Could a philosopher be a king, could blind imperial ambition be any less fanatical? In her beautifully conceived, full-dress biography of the legendary Mughal prince, Supriya Gandhi has mastered the fine art of storytelling with the rare gift of historiography. This is the drama of a nation on a historic precipice, told with impeccable verve and confidence. A joy to read, the masterstroke of a brilliant scholar.
And there I began my journey. I read and re-read this book almost seven times. In places the description was almost cinematic. A chronicle told in the language of poetry, as if.
Of the four sons of Shah Jahan, it was Dara Shukoh, the eldest, who was at Agra with his father, when the Emperor was taken ill in September, 1657. The sweetheart of his father, Dara was the absolute icon of fashionable liking in his Imperial capital. Liberal in outlook and a free thinker in religion, Dara was more inclined towards Sufism and Vedanta than towards the acerbic dogmas of Islam. He not only arranged translation of the Atharva Veda and the Upanishads into Persian with the help of learned Brahmin scholars, but also aimed at unearthing a harmony or conformity among the assortment of religious creeds which were until then antagonistic towards one another. All this earned him the discontentment of the Ulemas coupled with the uncompromising and conformist nobles at the court.
In administration, Dara was reasonably dexterous, often acting as the Emperor's deputy and transacting all the business of State. Being always at the court, Dara had an occasion to come into contact with all those, who mattered in the State. This not only made him an adroit in all matters of statecraft, but ended up producing in him a sentiment of vanity. As such, he could hardly tell apart between friend and foe, neglecting often the counsel of his well-meaning friends.
Another drawback of his character, as the books successive chapters suggest was that Dara was not at all well-versed in the art and strategy of war as his other adversaries in the succession struggle. That visibly placed him at inconvenience when the only arbiter of royal power was resort to the arms.
The instant the news of Shah Jahan's illness spread over the country, the royal battle of succession to the throne ensued. Among the four brothers, Dara was in a most profitable position. He was at the capital and as the Emperor himself wanted him to be the successor, he had the support of all those who were loyal of Shah Jahan. Besides, the Imperial armies were at his command to shore up his claim to the throne. Thus when Shuja crowned himself at Rajmahal, his headquarters as the governor of Bengal and marched at the head of a large army towards the imperial capital to seize the throne, Dara sent a hefty contingent of the imperial troops under the command of his son Sulaiman Shukoh and Raja Jai Singh Kachwaha to deal with him.
In an encounter that took place between two armies near Banaras, Shuja was utterly defeated and forced to retire back to Bengal. Again, when the combined troops of Aurangzeb and Murad advanced towards Agra, Dara sent Maharaja Jaswant Singh and Qasim Khan at the command of the imperial troops to defeat them. The two antagonistic forces met at Dharmat in which the imperialists were routed and Jaswant Singh fled to
Jodhpur, where his proud wife closed the doors of the castle against him as it was against Rajput convention to retreat from the field of battle. The victorious armies of Aurangzeb and Murad now marched forward against whom Dara collected a force of fifty thousand soldiers and reached the plain of Samugarh towards the end of May, 1659.
The battle that ensued was the most overwhelming as both the sides fought with paramount valour and gallantry. In the thick of the battle elephant of Dara was brutally wounded and the inopportune Prince got down and mounted a horse. Fate had its own script preiwritten for Hindustan.
That action, decided the destiny of the battle, as the imperial troops, finding the empty howdah of their master, thought that he was no more and lost their zeal to fight the enemy. The obvious consequence was a grand confusion among them and retreat from the battlefield.
Filled with grief, Dara had no way but to run back to Agra for safety reaching there relatively late in the night. His rout was, however, absolute and his quandary miserable. Dara was so ashamed that he did not go even to see Shah Jahan, who was acutely touched by his defeat.
At Agra, Dara did not stay for long and left for Delhi with his family, alongwith whatever valuables that he could carry. In panic of Aurangzeb's march to Delhi, Dara fled to Lahore. That was the beginning of his life as a renegade.
No sooner did Aurangzeb become free from other snags, than he decided to hunt Dara and squash him out of his way. After capturing Delhi without fight, Aurangzeb pursued Dara in Punjab and the latter fled to Multan. But Aurangzeb was not to leave Dara free. He too reached Multan, only to have slightly missed Dara, who escaped to Gujarat, whose governor Shah Nawaz Khan received him well and offered an assistance of ten lakhs of rupees which belonged to Murad. With this help, Dara raised an army of 20,000 in June, 1659 and decided to try his luck against Aurangzeb. Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar invited Dara to come to Ajmer and promised him support.
But before Dara could reach Ajmer, Aurangzeb had won over Jaswant Singh to his side and Dara was left alone to face the army of Aurangzeb at Deorai pass near Ajmer. Dara fought for gallantly for three days. It was beyond him to overpower the troops of Aurangzeb. He had, thus, to take shelter in flight. He reached Gujarat but was not allowed to enter the town of Ahmedabad by the Governor. In despair, the ill-fated prince proceeded towards Dadar to get shelter with Malik Jiwan whom he had once protected against imperial wrath.
The getaway to Dadar was an appalling calamity to Dara as his devoted wife, Nadira Begum, died of diarrhoea on the way. This broke the heart of Dara. "Mountain
after mountain of trouble”, writes Khwafi Khan, ''thus pressed upon the heart of
Dara, grief was added to grief, sorrow to sorrow, so that his mind no longer retained its equilibrium."
Malik Jiwan gave him no succour in his catastrophe and in its place played duplicity. Seizing from Dara all his money and jewellery, Malik Jiwan delivered him to Aurangzeb's general Bahadur Khan. Dara was now a prisoner and brought to Delhi on 23rd August, 1659.
It could not be expected that Dara would receive a nice treatment or a fair deal from his brother Aurangzeb, now the Emperor of Hindustan. He was disgraced to the dust and was paraded on 29th Aug, 1659 through the streets of Delhi in an uncovered howdah on the back of a small female elephant in the full blaze of the August sun. What a terrible ordeal it could have been for the unfortunate prince who had recently been the crown prince and had rode through the streets of the town in full glory could only be imagined and not described.
It aroused compassion in the hearts of all those who had the hard luck to witness the scene.
In this context I am allured to quote Bernier, who records : - "Everywhere I observed the people weeping and lamenting the fate of Dara in the most touching language I heard piercing and distressing shrieks, for the Indian people have a very tender heart: men, women and children wailing as if some mighty calamity had happened to themselves."
Even amidst this ignominy and disaster, Dara did not allow his grit to be stifled. When he was in front of a fortress, a faqir shouted to him "O Dara, when you were master, you always gave me alms; today I know well thou hast naught to give me." At this Dara took no time in removing the shawl from his body and throwing it down to the faqir. The shawl was, however, not allowed to reach the faqir as it was seized on the orders of Bahadur Khan stating that a prisoner had no right to be charitable. After the parade was over Dara was shut up as prisoner in one of his own gardens, called Heider Abad.
On the next day, 30th Aug, 1659, popular empathy for Dara burst out in a riot directed against the turncoat Malik Jiwan. In this riot, despite number of Baluchi soldiers being killed, Malik Jiwan escaped safe. He was later assassinated on his way back to Dadar.
All that the popular riot could achieve was to accelerate the end of Dara as his life posed a grave threat to the state. His case was hurriedly placed before the Ulemas who gave the verdict that Dara was an apostate from Islam and pronounced the death sentence against him. On the same night, the executioners beheaded him and his head was duly sent to Aurangzeb, who, after identification ordered that the headless corpse to be paraded through the streets of Delhi so that the people would know well that their favourite had been executed. The body was then brusquely buried in the tomb of Humayun.
The career of Dara Shukoh in Indian history has always attracted commiseration. Many of those who care to study the last days of Shah Jahan and the war of succession among his sons often bewail over the failure of Dara. The battle for succession between Dara and Aurangzeb is an origin myth of the subcontinent’s present, seen as a critical turning point in the progression of South Asian history. But it is not a stable myth. It’s telling and retellings shift and settle into the subcontinent’s fault lines of nation and ideology.
He was a gem of a man -- noninterventionist, munificent and broad-minded. Had he won the succession struggle, he would have added as glorious a chapter to the history of India.
According to one version, Aurangzeb’s victory over Dara Shukoh cleared the way for Muslim political assertion in the subcontinent. In his 1918 collection of Persian verse, Rumuz-I- bekhudi, the poet-philosopher Muhammad Iqbal, who also outlined an early vision for the state of Pakistan, pronounces judgment on the two brothers. For him, Dara Shukoh represented a dangerous shoot of heresy in the Mughal dynasty that needed to be uprooted: “When the seed of heresy that Akbar nourished / Once again sprang up in Dara’s essential nature / The heart’s candle was snuffed out in every
breast / Our nation was not secure from corruption.
Iqbal speaks shiningly of Aurangzeb, sent by God to save the Muslim community: “Divine Truth chose Alamgir from India / That ascetic, that swordmaster / To revive religion He commissioned him / To renew belief He commissioned him.”
Aurangzeb here takes on an almost prophetic role. In fact, later in the same poem, Iqbal compares him to Abraham, a foundational prophet of Islam, who smashed stone idols in the Kaaba in order to foster monotheism.
Later, after the new nation-state of Pakistan was born, Ishtiaq Husain Qureshi wove Dara Shukoh and Aurangzeb into his story of the subcontinent’s Muslims. Like Iqbal’s account, Qureshi’s is teleological. Historical events lead inexorably to the present, all linked by a single thread. Aurangzeb’s victory over Dara becomes a crucial turning point in the march to a separate Muslim homeland. Qureshi says approvingly of Aurangzeb, “Character and ability overcame resources and numbers. . . . This was the hour of triumph for orthodoxy.”
In a contrasting version, this fratricidal war is a tragedy. Its outcome becomes the reason South Asia’s nation-states now bristle with mutual hostility and its societies suffer from religious violence.
Historians (the author of this book, included) often attribute the success of Aurangzeb to his superiority as a general and strategist in war and Dara's failure to his being a weak general. Dara was not a general himself. Fondled and favoured by his father and surrounded by all the influences that foster love of flattery and self-conceit, he had not cultivated those qualities which bring to men the prize of a competitive warfare.
This is perhaps not fair to Dara. The prince fought against his three brothers to the best of his ability and was successful in the beginning but in the end, he failed. This failure was dueto so many reasons including what is called the factor of chance-Dara dismounted from the elephant and rode the horse, which decided the fate of battle. Despite his failure in the succession struggle to seize the throne and become the Emperor of India, the character of Dara Shukoh both as an individual and a prince attracts our admiration.
Prophetic it sounds almost, when this strife is connoted as ‘the partition before Partition’. Dara was killed on an August night 350 years ago, and with him died hopes of a lasting Hindu-Muslim compact.
This book is a must read for all students of Indian History. It surpasses not only Lanepoole and Ishwari Prasad, but also Tripathi, Kennedy and Qanungo.
It was Hamid Dabashi’s review of this book in The Observer, which blew me away.
Hamid Sahab writes: Dara Shukoh or Aurangzeb? India, the very idea of it, at a fateful crossroad: Could a philosopher be a king, could blind imperial ambition be any less fanatical? In her beautifully conceived, full-dress biography of the legendary Mughal prince, Supriya Gandhi has mastered the fine art of storytelling with the rare gift of historiography. This is the drama of a nation on a historic precipice, told with impeccable verve and confidence. A joy to read, the masterstroke of a brilliant scholar.
And there I began my journey. I read and re-read this book almost seven times. In places the description was almost cinematic. A chronicle told in the language of poetry, as if.
Of the four sons of Shah Jahan, it was Dara Shukoh, the eldest, who was at Agra with his father, when the Emperor was taken ill in September, 1657. The sweetheart of his father, Dara was the absolute icon of fashionable liking in his Imperial capital. Liberal in outlook and a free thinker in religion, Dara was more inclined towards Sufism and Vedanta than towards the acerbic dogmas of Islam. He not only arranged translation of the Atharva Veda and the Upanishads into Persian with the help of learned Brahmin scholars, but also aimed at unearthing a harmony or conformity among the assortment of religious creeds which were until then antagonistic towards one another. All this earned him the discontentment of the Ulemas coupled with the uncompromising and conformist nobles at the court.
In administration, Dara was reasonably dexterous, often acting as the Emperor's deputy and transacting all the business of State. Being always at the court, Dara had an occasion to come into contact with all those, who mattered in the State. This not only made him an adroit in all matters of statecraft, but ended up producing in him a sentiment of vanity. As such, he could hardly tell apart between friend and foe, neglecting often the counsel of his well-meaning friends.
Another drawback of his character, as the books successive chapters suggest was that Dara was not at all well-versed in the art and strategy of war as his other adversaries in the succession struggle. That visibly placed him at inconvenience when the only arbiter of royal power was resort to the arms.
The instant the news of Shah Jahan's illness spread over the country, the royal battle of succession to the throne ensued. Among the four brothers, Dara was in a most profitable position. He was at the capital and as the Emperor himself wanted him to be the successor, he had the support of all those who were loyal of Shah Jahan. Besides, the Imperial armies were at his command to shore up his claim to the throne. Thus when Shuja crowned himself at Rajmahal, his headquarters as the governor of Bengal and marched at the head of a large army towards the imperial capital to seize the throne, Dara sent a hefty contingent of the imperial troops under the command of his son Sulaiman Shukoh and Raja Jai Singh Kachwaha to deal with him.
In an encounter that took place between two armies near Banaras, Shuja was utterly defeated and forced to retire back to Bengal. Again, when the combined troops of Aurangzeb and Murad advanced towards Agra, Dara sent Maharaja Jaswant Singh and Qasim Khan at the command of the imperial troops to defeat them. The two antagonistic forces met at Dharmat in which the imperialists were routed and Jaswant Singh fled to
Jodhpur, where his proud wife closed the doors of the castle against him as it was against Rajput convention to retreat from the field of battle. The victorious armies of Aurangzeb and Murad now marched forward against whom Dara collected a force of fifty thousand soldiers and reached the plain of Samugarh towards the end of May, 1659.
The battle that ensued was the most overwhelming as both the sides fought with paramount valour and gallantry. In the thick of the battle elephant of Dara was brutally wounded and the inopportune Prince got down and mounted a horse. Fate had its own script preiwritten for Hindustan.
That action, decided the destiny of the battle, as the imperial troops, finding the empty howdah of their master, thought that he was no more and lost their zeal to fight the enemy. The obvious consequence was a grand confusion among them and retreat from the battlefield.
Filled with grief, Dara had no way but to run back to Agra for safety reaching there relatively late in the night. His rout was, however, absolute and his quandary miserable. Dara was so ashamed that he did not go even to see Shah Jahan, who was acutely touched by his defeat.
At Agra, Dara did not stay for long and left for Delhi with his family, alongwith whatever valuables that he could carry. In panic of Aurangzeb's march to Delhi, Dara fled to Lahore. That was the beginning of his life as a renegade.
No sooner did Aurangzeb become free from other snags, than he decided to hunt Dara and squash him out of his way. After capturing Delhi without fight, Aurangzeb pursued Dara in Punjab and the latter fled to Multan. But Aurangzeb was not to leave Dara free. He too reached Multan, only to have slightly missed Dara, who escaped to Gujarat, whose governor Shah Nawaz Khan received him well and offered an assistance of ten lakhs of rupees which belonged to Murad. With this help, Dara raised an army of 20,000 in June, 1659 and decided to try his luck against Aurangzeb. Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar invited Dara to come to Ajmer and promised him support.
But before Dara could reach Ajmer, Aurangzeb had won over Jaswant Singh to his side and Dara was left alone to face the army of Aurangzeb at Deorai pass near Ajmer. Dara fought for gallantly for three days. It was beyond him to overpower the troops of Aurangzeb. He had, thus, to take shelter in flight. He reached Gujarat but was not allowed to enter the town of Ahmedabad by the Governor. In despair, the ill-fated prince proceeded towards Dadar to get shelter with Malik Jiwan whom he had once protected against imperial wrath.
The getaway to Dadar was an appalling calamity to Dara as his devoted wife, Nadira Begum, died of diarrhoea on the way. This broke the heart of Dara. "Mountain
after mountain of trouble”, writes Khwafi Khan, ''thus pressed upon the heart of
Dara, grief was added to grief, sorrow to sorrow, so that his mind no longer retained its equilibrium."
Malik Jiwan gave him no succour in his catastrophe and in its place played duplicity. Seizing from Dara all his money and jewellery, Malik Jiwan delivered him to Aurangzeb's general Bahadur Khan. Dara was now a prisoner and brought to Delhi on 23rd August, 1659.
It could not be expected that Dara would receive a nice treatment or a fair deal from his brother Aurangzeb, now the Emperor of Hindustan. He was disgraced to the dust and was paraded on 29th Aug, 1659 through the streets of Delhi in an uncovered howdah on the back of a small female elephant in the full blaze of the August sun. What a terrible ordeal it could have been for the unfortunate prince who had recently been the crown prince and had rode through the streets of the town in full glory could only be imagined and not described.
It aroused compassion in the hearts of all those who had the hard luck to witness the scene.
In this context I am allured to quote Bernier, who records : - "Everywhere I observed the people weeping and lamenting the fate of Dara in the most touching language I heard piercing and distressing shrieks, for the Indian people have a very tender heart: men, women and children wailing as if some mighty calamity had happened to themselves."
Even amidst this ignominy and disaster, Dara did not allow his grit to be stifled. When he was in front of a fortress, a faqir shouted to him "O Dara, when you were master, you always gave me alms; today I know well thou hast naught to give me." At this Dara took no time in removing the shawl from his body and throwing it down to the faqir. The shawl was, however, not allowed to reach the faqir as it was seized on the orders of Bahadur Khan stating that a prisoner had no right to be charitable. After the parade was over Dara was shut up as prisoner in one of his own gardens, called Heider Abad.
On the next day, 30th Aug, 1659, popular empathy for Dara burst out in a riot directed against the turncoat Malik Jiwan. In this riot, despite number of Baluchi soldiers being killed, Malik Jiwan escaped safe. He was later assassinated on his way back to Dadar.
All that the popular riot could achieve was to accelerate the end of Dara as his life posed a grave threat to the state. His case was hurriedly placed before the Ulemas who gave the verdict that Dara was an apostate from Islam and pronounced the death sentence against him. On the same night, the executioners beheaded him and his head was duly sent to Aurangzeb, who, after identification ordered that the headless corpse to be paraded through the streets of Delhi so that the people would know well that their favourite had been executed. The body was then brusquely buried in the tomb of Humayun.
The career of Dara Shukoh in Indian history has always attracted commiseration. Many of those who care to study the last days of Shah Jahan and the war of succession among his sons often bewail over the failure of Dara. The battle for succession between Dara and Aurangzeb is an origin myth of the subcontinent’s present, seen as a critical turning point in the progression of South Asian history. But it is not a stable myth. It’s telling and retellings shift and settle into the subcontinent’s fault lines of nation and ideology.
He was a gem of a man -- noninterventionist, munificent and broad-minded. Had he won the succession struggle, he would have added as glorious a chapter to the history of India.
According to one version, Aurangzeb’s victory over Dara Shukoh cleared the way for Muslim political assertion in the subcontinent. In his 1918 collection of Persian verse, Rumuz-I- bekhudi, the poet-philosopher Muhammad Iqbal, who also outlined an early vision for the state of Pakistan, pronounces judgment on the two brothers. For him, Dara Shukoh represented a dangerous shoot of heresy in the Mughal dynasty that needed to be uprooted: “When the seed of heresy that Akbar nourished / Once again sprang up in Dara’s essential nature / The heart’s candle was snuffed out in every
breast / Our nation was not secure from corruption.
Iqbal speaks shiningly of Aurangzeb, sent by God to save the Muslim community: “Divine Truth chose Alamgir from India / That ascetic, that swordmaster / To revive religion He commissioned him / To renew belief He commissioned him.”
Aurangzeb here takes on an almost prophetic role. In fact, later in the same poem, Iqbal compares him to Abraham, a foundational prophet of Islam, who smashed stone idols in the Kaaba in order to foster monotheism.
Later, after the new nation-state of Pakistan was born, Ishtiaq Husain Qureshi wove Dara Shukoh and Aurangzeb into his story of the subcontinent’s Muslims. Like Iqbal’s account, Qureshi’s is teleological. Historical events lead inexorably to the present, all linked by a single thread. Aurangzeb’s victory over Dara becomes a crucial turning point in the march to a separate Muslim homeland. Qureshi says approvingly of Aurangzeb, “Character and ability overcame resources and numbers. . . . This was the hour of triumph for orthodoxy.”
In a contrasting version, this fratricidal war is a tragedy. Its outcome becomes the reason South Asia’s nation-states now bristle with mutual hostility and its societies suffer from religious violence.
Historians (the author of this book, included) often attribute the success of Aurangzeb to his superiority as a general and strategist in war and Dara's failure to his being a weak general. Dara was not a general himself. Fondled and favoured by his father and surrounded by all the influences that foster love of flattery and self-conceit, he had not cultivated those qualities which bring to men the prize of a competitive warfare.
This is perhaps not fair to Dara. The prince fought against his three brothers to the best of his ability and was successful in the beginning but in the end, he failed. This failure was dueto so many reasons including what is called the factor of chance-Dara dismounted from the elephant and rode the horse, which decided the fate of battle. Despite his failure in the succession struggle to seize the throne and become the Emperor of India, the character of Dara Shukoh both as an individual and a prince attracts our admiration.
Prophetic it sounds almost, when this strife is connoted as ‘the partition before Partition’. Dara was killed on an August night 350 years ago, and with him died hopes of a lasting Hindu-Muslim compact.
This book is a must read for all students of Indian History. It surpasses not only Lanepoole and Ishwari Prasad, but also Tripathi, Kennedy and Qanungo.
June 24, 2020
Education is not a prerequisite to a glorious career.At least, as far as the Mughals were concerned! Akbar was an illiterate who turned himself into an eclectic philosopher in the latter half of his reign and consolidated the empire. Aurangzeb was a learned man but sowed the seeds of destruction of the Mughal Empire. However, Aurangzeb ascended the throne through a bloody, fratricidal war of succession in which he killed two of his brothers and exiled another. Dara Shukoh, whom Aurangzeb replaced, was a man with a character totally opposite to that of his rival. Dara was the eldest son of Shah Jahan who was nominated as the crown prince, controlled the administration of the Mughal state for a few years and most important of all, offered a path of compromise and mutual respect between the conflicting religions of Islam and Hinduism. This book is a survey of Dara Shukoh as a faithful son, unsure administrator, eager mystic, broad-minded syncretist and a tepid warlord. Supriya Gandhi grew up in India, took her PhD from Harvard and now teaches at the Religious Studies department of Yale University. She addresses the issue of whether the destiny of the Mughals and India as well would have been any different if Aurangzeb was foiled in his efforts by Dara and comes out with a prudent answer that the ascendancy of Dara wouldn't have made any significant deviation on the flow of subsequent history.
Dara Shukoh attracts much scorn from Islamists and jihadi elements even now. Pakistani poet Muhammad Iqbal comments that Dara ‘represented a dangerous shoot of heresy in the Mughal dynasty that needed to be uprooted’! Moderates and Hindus generally appreciate the good efforts of the prince. The author brings out the true state of affairs behind this ambiguity. Dara never renounced Islam. His universalist position only allowed him to embrace ideas from other traditions while remaining a Muslim. Even though he exhibited much interest in Hindu spiritual philosophy, there is no evidence that he evinced any concern for ordinary Hindus and their rituals of worship. In his paraphrasing of the episode of Kabir’s disappearing dead body which was claimed by both Hindus and Muslims as their own, Dara’s indifference to Hindus is obvious. He could have used the term hunud (Arabic plural for hindi) but instead he refers to them as kafirs. Dara was a strict monotheist too.
Dara Shukoh successfully integrated himself into a community of the spiritual elect. The author’s original contribution in this book is to explain in some detail Dara’s detour into Sufism and his quest in search of monotheism in Hindu religious principles. She examines Dara’s works such as Sakinat-ul-Auliya, Safinat-ul-Auliya, Haqqnuma, Hasanat-ul-Arifin and others. Qadiri Sufis like Mulla Shah and Shah Dilruba guided him. His ecstatic declarations upon receiving a spiritual ‘high’ were sometimes shocking to the bigoted ulema who did not understand the implied meaning. His cry “praise God, praise God, that from the blessing of love of this noble, revered, great community (taifa), insincere (majazi) Islam has fled from the heart of this faqir, and true infidelity (kufr-i-haqiqi) has shown its face” (p.155). On closer inspection we can see that what he meant is a firm adherence to the ultimate truth of divine unity. Unthinking minds took it as a confirmation of his turning an apostate.
Supriya Gandhi gives pride of place to two of Dara’s great contributions to Indian thought. His insightful work Majma-ul-Bahrain (confluence of two seas) compares the religious tenets of Hinduism and Islam and comes up with some common ground. Quran is given a prominent place in this treatise. Dara quotes and elucidates Quranic verses as proof texts to demonstrate the validity of the Indian concepts he describes. Contrary to critics’ accusations, the Quran is the primary locus of authority in the Majma-ul-Bahrain. This was later translated into Sanskrit as Samudrasangama. Dara’s magnificent feat is the translation of Upanishads into Persian as Sirr-i-Akbar (The Greatest Secret). In this, the Mughal prince contends that Upanishads represent a distillation of the Vedas and outlined the ancient secrets of mystical knowledge and pure, original monotheism, which is fully in agreement with the Quran. He addressed the conundrum of multiple gods that appear so frequently in several Upanishads in an ingenious way. He cleverly sidestepped their divinity and enfolded them within an Islamic framework. So a god (deva) becomes either an angel (firishta) or a spiritual guardian (muwakkal).
The book includes many instances where the famed tolerance of Sufi saints is worn thin. The Sufi sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi deplored even the presence of Hindus in the Mughal administration. If they were employed at all, he argues, they should be given insignificant jobs. They are to be avoided like dogs, taxed and disgraced (p.71). Even though it is said that Sufis have no sense of religious distinctness, we read about many instances otherwise in this book. Dara’s mentor Mulla Shah openly asked a Hindu disciple Banwali Das to convert to Islam. The author also remarks that though today we might think of the ulema and Sufis as two fiercely opposing camps, this was not the case in Mughal times (p.90). Supriya Gandhi has also successfully brought out the contrast between the broad-based eclecticism of some Chishti Sufis and the narrower, more tightly bounded view of religion by the Naqshbandis.
A characteristic trait of the leftist historians in India is their unfortunate manipulation of historic data to portray extremely bigoted sultans in a benevolent light. By the same token, if they are to attempt the history of Osama bin Laden or Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the characters that come out of their fabrication shops would look more like Akbar or Saladin than the original zealots. What is pathetic and bordering on the comical is the sheer effort taken by the author to find a reason to justify every act of religious outrage we typically associate with a jihadi. Supriya balances Jahangir’s desecration of the temple at Pushkar in 1613 with the argument that it was ‘a threatening provocation and warning to the nearby Mewar prince Rana Amar Singh’. In 1633, Shah Jahan ordered the razing of all temples in the kingdom that were currently under construction. This heinous act was focused especially on halting the building of temples in Varanasi where no fewer than seventy-six unfinished temples were destroyed (p.73). The author mitigates this with the claim that it was done ‘to mould his image as a sovereign guided by religion and to assert his power in the empire’s heartland’. She also soothes the victims with the consolation that it ‘was not routine for the destruction of seventy-six temples in one go’. Otherwise, the Hindus would not have started construction of so many temples in one city. What she fails to conceive is that Varanasi is not just ‘one city’ for the Hindus. It is the holiest! Shah Jahan also destroyed the Chaturbhuj Temple in Orchcha and converted it into a mosque. Supriya asserts that it was ‘to stamp out the most important symbol of Bundela sovereignty’ and therefore justifiable. Aurangzeb destroyed the Jain temple at Saraspur and converted it to a mosque. Author’s thinking is that it served ‘to assert his authority in the new territory of Gujarat’. In short, numerous reasons are cited for these brutal acts, but the most obvious one – the ruler’s bigotry – is never listed. She even strives to exonerate Aurangzeb from the charge of beheading his brother Dara because the murder is attributed to the opinion given by his sister Roshanara and his Iranian physician who was a fanatic.
The name Dara Shukoh means ‘as majestic as Darius’, the legendary ruler of pre-Islamic Persia. The author has been able to provide a clear snapshot of Dara’s work, rather than him as a person – a son, a husband or a father. This may be because she often finds fault with colonial historiography that privileges the study of the lives and larger than life personalities of Mughal rulers. The book contains many illustrations from contemporary manuscripts, but is not so pleasing to read. It includes a dutiful Dramatis Personae, detailed notes and index but surprisingly, no bibliography!. This is a serious shortcoming in a book of this nature that should be set right in future editions.
The book is recommended.
Dara Shukoh attracts much scorn from Islamists and jihadi elements even now. Pakistani poet Muhammad Iqbal comments that Dara ‘represented a dangerous shoot of heresy in the Mughal dynasty that needed to be uprooted’! Moderates and Hindus generally appreciate the good efforts of the prince. The author brings out the true state of affairs behind this ambiguity. Dara never renounced Islam. His universalist position only allowed him to embrace ideas from other traditions while remaining a Muslim. Even though he exhibited much interest in Hindu spiritual philosophy, there is no evidence that he evinced any concern for ordinary Hindus and their rituals of worship. In his paraphrasing of the episode of Kabir’s disappearing dead body which was claimed by both Hindus and Muslims as their own, Dara’s indifference to Hindus is obvious. He could have used the term hunud (Arabic plural for hindi) but instead he refers to them as kafirs. Dara was a strict monotheist too.
Dara Shukoh successfully integrated himself into a community of the spiritual elect. The author’s original contribution in this book is to explain in some detail Dara’s detour into Sufism and his quest in search of monotheism in Hindu religious principles. She examines Dara’s works such as Sakinat-ul-Auliya, Safinat-ul-Auliya, Haqqnuma, Hasanat-ul-Arifin and others. Qadiri Sufis like Mulla Shah and Shah Dilruba guided him. His ecstatic declarations upon receiving a spiritual ‘high’ were sometimes shocking to the bigoted ulema who did not understand the implied meaning. His cry “praise God, praise God, that from the blessing of love of this noble, revered, great community (taifa), insincere (majazi) Islam has fled from the heart of this faqir, and true infidelity (kufr-i-haqiqi) has shown its face” (p.155). On closer inspection we can see that what he meant is a firm adherence to the ultimate truth of divine unity. Unthinking minds took it as a confirmation of his turning an apostate.
Supriya Gandhi gives pride of place to two of Dara’s great contributions to Indian thought. His insightful work Majma-ul-Bahrain (confluence of two seas) compares the religious tenets of Hinduism and Islam and comes up with some common ground. Quran is given a prominent place in this treatise. Dara quotes and elucidates Quranic verses as proof texts to demonstrate the validity of the Indian concepts he describes. Contrary to critics’ accusations, the Quran is the primary locus of authority in the Majma-ul-Bahrain. This was later translated into Sanskrit as Samudrasangama. Dara’s magnificent feat is the translation of Upanishads into Persian as Sirr-i-Akbar (The Greatest Secret). In this, the Mughal prince contends that Upanishads represent a distillation of the Vedas and outlined the ancient secrets of mystical knowledge and pure, original monotheism, which is fully in agreement with the Quran. He addressed the conundrum of multiple gods that appear so frequently in several Upanishads in an ingenious way. He cleverly sidestepped their divinity and enfolded them within an Islamic framework. So a god (deva) becomes either an angel (firishta) or a spiritual guardian (muwakkal).
The book includes many instances where the famed tolerance of Sufi saints is worn thin. The Sufi sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi deplored even the presence of Hindus in the Mughal administration. If they were employed at all, he argues, they should be given insignificant jobs. They are to be avoided like dogs, taxed and disgraced (p.71). Even though it is said that Sufis have no sense of religious distinctness, we read about many instances otherwise in this book. Dara’s mentor Mulla Shah openly asked a Hindu disciple Banwali Das to convert to Islam. The author also remarks that though today we might think of the ulema and Sufis as two fiercely opposing camps, this was not the case in Mughal times (p.90). Supriya Gandhi has also successfully brought out the contrast between the broad-based eclecticism of some Chishti Sufis and the narrower, more tightly bounded view of religion by the Naqshbandis.
A characteristic trait of the leftist historians in India is their unfortunate manipulation of historic data to portray extremely bigoted sultans in a benevolent light. By the same token, if they are to attempt the history of Osama bin Laden or Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the characters that come out of their fabrication shops would look more like Akbar or Saladin than the original zealots. What is pathetic and bordering on the comical is the sheer effort taken by the author to find a reason to justify every act of religious outrage we typically associate with a jihadi. Supriya balances Jahangir’s desecration of the temple at Pushkar in 1613 with the argument that it was ‘a threatening provocation and warning to the nearby Mewar prince Rana Amar Singh’. In 1633, Shah Jahan ordered the razing of all temples in the kingdom that were currently under construction. This heinous act was focused especially on halting the building of temples in Varanasi where no fewer than seventy-six unfinished temples were destroyed (p.73). The author mitigates this with the claim that it was done ‘to mould his image as a sovereign guided by religion and to assert his power in the empire’s heartland’. She also soothes the victims with the consolation that it ‘was not routine for the destruction of seventy-six temples in one go’. Otherwise, the Hindus would not have started construction of so many temples in one city. What she fails to conceive is that Varanasi is not just ‘one city’ for the Hindus. It is the holiest! Shah Jahan also destroyed the Chaturbhuj Temple in Orchcha and converted it into a mosque. Supriya asserts that it was ‘to stamp out the most important symbol of Bundela sovereignty’ and therefore justifiable. Aurangzeb destroyed the Jain temple at Saraspur and converted it to a mosque. Author’s thinking is that it served ‘to assert his authority in the new territory of Gujarat’. In short, numerous reasons are cited for these brutal acts, but the most obvious one – the ruler’s bigotry – is never listed. She even strives to exonerate Aurangzeb from the charge of beheading his brother Dara because the murder is attributed to the opinion given by his sister Roshanara and his Iranian physician who was a fanatic.
The name Dara Shukoh means ‘as majestic as Darius’, the legendary ruler of pre-Islamic Persia. The author has been able to provide a clear snapshot of Dara’s work, rather than him as a person – a son, a husband or a father. This may be because she often finds fault with colonial historiography that privileges the study of the lives and larger than life personalities of Mughal rulers. The book contains many illustrations from contemporary manuscripts, but is not so pleasing to read. It includes a dutiful Dramatis Personae, detailed notes and index but surprisingly, no bibliography!. This is a serious shortcoming in a book of this nature that should be set right in future editions.
The book is recommended.
July 9, 2021
To start, I really enjoyed this book by Supriya Gandhi. This book provides a window to the Mughal era of Jahangir and Shahjahan, through the life of Dara Shukoh. The first part of the book details the religious, cultural, and philosophical development during the combined reign of Jahangir and Nurjahan. It also gives an interesting view of the inside of the royal household. The second part mostly deals with a privileged prince who was a self-proclaimed faqir, who dreamed of becoming a sage king. Yes, of course, Dara was a scholar prince. He started his journey with Sufism, writing and commissioning books of Sufi Philosophy, then his interest went towards Indic philosophy where he tried to provide a parallel between Indic and Islamic philosophy as well as mythology. Though he was following the path of his great-grandfather Akbar to assimilate both the major religions to rule India successfully, he never acknowledged it. He debated with scholars and pandits, asked questions but almost never acknowledged their responses. Sometimes this habit comes out as arrogance. And this was one of the major flaws of the prince. He, favoured by his father over his other brothers, always thought himself to be better than others. This may be one of the reasons why his supporters abandoned him at the time of need.
Overall, other than his philosophical and literary exploits Dara Shukoh had a role to play in the story of Aurangzeb's ascension and he did it perfectly. Who knows what would have happened to modern India if Dara had become the Emperor of India?
Overall, other than his philosophical and literary exploits Dara Shukoh had a role to play in the story of Aurangzeb's ascension and he did it perfectly. Who knows what would have happened to modern India if Dara had become the Emperor of India?
April 25, 2020
The author takes on the rather interesting task of putting together a character portrait of Dara Shukoh, Shah Jahan's firstborn and the heir apparent to the Mughal throne, until he is overthrown by his younger brother, Aurangzeb.
The author has done a strong job of analysing all his literary works (both those he commissioned and those he produced himself) as well as his religious and philosophical queries and interactions to peel through his character traits. Through this research, Dara Shukoh is revealed to be an exceedingly intellectual individual. In addition, she also brings out a strong mystical side to him, revealed via his interactions and devotion to multiple religious teachers (across cultures) and eventually leading him to existential questions around himself as the ruler of a material world. Through these explorations, Dara Shukoh is also shown to be appreciative of both Islamic and Indian culture, looking to find God'sword in the Upanishads and Vedas as much as in the Quran. In that sense, he is strongly modelled as a secular ruler, after Akbar.
Which leads to the author's ultimate question on whether the struggle between him and Aurangzeb has been wrongly characterised as a religious one. Given that most narratives on Dara Shukoh were written during the time of Aurangzeb, he was portrayed as an "infidel" hence justifying Aurangzeb overthrowing him. This narrative is further extrapolated by the colonial historians to drive home the religious wedge. Nonetheless, it poses an interesting hypothetical question about the history of Indian had Dara Shukoh, and not Aurangzeb, come to power after Shah Janah.
The book is well researched. However, the author often gets into excessive details of the texts rather than focusing on the point. The book should be better positioned as a history text rather than one painting a broad narrative. Nonetheless, a good read to peer into the personality of one of the lesser know, yet most intriguing Mughal figures.
The author has done a strong job of analysing all his literary works (both those he commissioned and those he produced himself) as well as his religious and philosophical queries and interactions to peel through his character traits. Through this research, Dara Shukoh is revealed to be an exceedingly intellectual individual. In addition, she also brings out a strong mystical side to him, revealed via his interactions and devotion to multiple religious teachers (across cultures) and eventually leading him to existential questions around himself as the ruler of a material world. Through these explorations, Dara Shukoh is also shown to be appreciative of both Islamic and Indian culture, looking to find God'sword in the Upanishads and Vedas as much as in the Quran. In that sense, he is strongly modelled as a secular ruler, after Akbar.
Which leads to the author's ultimate question on whether the struggle between him and Aurangzeb has been wrongly characterised as a religious one. Given that most narratives on Dara Shukoh were written during the time of Aurangzeb, he was portrayed as an "infidel" hence justifying Aurangzeb overthrowing him. This narrative is further extrapolated by the colonial historians to drive home the religious wedge. Nonetheless, it poses an interesting hypothetical question about the history of Indian had Dara Shukoh, and not Aurangzeb, come to power after Shah Janah.
The book is well researched. However, the author often gets into excessive details of the texts rather than focusing on the point. The book should be better positioned as a history text rather than one painting a broad narrative. Nonetheless, a good read to peer into the personality of one of the lesser know, yet most intriguing Mughal figures.
May 25, 2020
Despite 12 years of schooling in the Indian education system, I had to look up Dara Shukoh on the internet when this book started doing the rounds on my literary twitter feed. I'm shamefully ignorant of most of pre-colonial Indian history, and the rave reviews of Supriya Gandhi's book were just the incentives I needed to pick it up.
This book retraces Dara Shokoh's life from this beginning; and for a Mughal royal, the arcs of their lives begin way before their birth. And so we first learn about emperor Shah Jahan, and his path to the throne. By the time we come to young Dara, we have a sense of how Mughal rule in India works--the shaky alliances with less powerful kingdoms, the role of the wife in maintaining these alliances and other more personal ones, and perhaps most importantly in the context of this book, the play between religion and Islamic rulership, and the engagement of Islamic rulers with Indic religion and philosophy.
This is a book by an Academic. And I mean that in the best sense possible here. Don't get me wrong, the writing is very accessible, but the author clearly wants to keep this as objective as possible--relying only on the most trustworthy sources, and making painstaking efforts to weed out rumors from established fact, even if it makes for a less juicy story. If anything, Supriya Gandhi downplays all that is thought to have been unique about him--his asceticism and turn towards Sufism and Hindu philosophy--by framing it against similar practices by other rules. Dara is neither hero nor villain, merely a link--even if it were a particularly interesting one--in a chain of complex events.
This book retraces Dara Shokoh's life from this beginning; and for a Mughal royal, the arcs of their lives begin way before their birth. And so we first learn about emperor Shah Jahan, and his path to the throne. By the time we come to young Dara, we have a sense of how Mughal rule in India works--the shaky alliances with less powerful kingdoms, the role of the wife in maintaining these alliances and other more personal ones, and perhaps most importantly in the context of this book, the play between religion and Islamic rulership, and the engagement of Islamic rulers with Indic religion and philosophy.
This is a book by an Academic. And I mean that in the best sense possible here. Don't get me wrong, the writing is very accessible, but the author clearly wants to keep this as objective as possible--relying only on the most trustworthy sources, and making painstaking efforts to weed out rumors from established fact, even if it makes for a less juicy story. If anything, Supriya Gandhi downplays all that is thought to have been unique about him--his asceticism and turn towards Sufism and Hindu philosophy--by framing it against similar practices by other rules. Dara is neither hero nor villain, merely a link--even if it were a particularly interesting one--in a chain of complex events.
January 4, 2022
Great biography! Rich in details of two of Dara's greatest works, as well as in general context information (sometimes too much about family intricacies). Also appreciating the simple writing style, it is by no means a boring or too difficult read.
June 16, 2020
I was a kid when I first read an Urdu title on Aurangzeb and how he came into power by killing his brothers and imprisonment of his father. Strangely enough that book actually managed to glorify what Aurangzeb did to propagate Islam afterwards and never once I thought there must be more to that story.
Aurangzeb is a much hated figure in India while a venerated one this side of the border. So anything written linked to him automatically generates an interest in my mind. I only learnt from reading this book that fratricide was a way to go in Mughal times especially if you were third in line. Anyway, the premise of the book is if and how the shape of subcontinent might have changed had Dara not succumbed to Aurangzeb in the succession war. Short answer, not much in view of the writer.
The thing that got me the most was how Aurangzeb supposedly used Kufr fatwa to try & kill Dara in the end. Makes me wonder if things have changed much from the 17th century to present day. Or have we come full circle?
Aurangzeb is a much hated figure in India while a venerated one this side of the border. So anything written linked to him automatically generates an interest in my mind. I only learnt from reading this book that fratricide was a way to go in Mughal times especially if you were third in line. Anyway, the premise of the book is if and how the shape of subcontinent might have changed had Dara not succumbed to Aurangzeb in the succession war. Short answer, not much in view of the writer.
The thing that got me the most was how Aurangzeb supposedly used Kufr fatwa to try & kill Dara in the end. Makes me wonder if things have changed much from the 17th century to present day. Or have we come full circle?
September 9, 2022
Unfortunately, Professor Gandhi has not mastered the art of writing in a manner suited for books as opposed to academic journals. As such her prose seems stiff and dry and I couldn't help but wonder how the main subject would have been better portrayed in the hands of William Dalrymple, the best ever chronicler of India.
Dara Shukoh was a truly fascinating character. A prince born into a life of privelege and splendour and yet desired more for spiritual status. An intellectual who never stopped searching for the truth and who tried to synthesise Hindu mysticism with Islamic Sufism.
Professor Gandhi does conclude her book poorly. She seems to think that Dara Shukoh had he ascended to the throne would have engaged in the same fraticidal violence as his brothers. I think that was a harsh and inaccurate assessment of Dara.
Dara Shukoh was very much the type of Philosopher King as envisioned by Plato. He was a seasoned warrior, a capable administrator, and an erudite man who always like Alexander craved for the company of ascetics.
Dara Shukoh was a truly fascinating character. A prince born into a life of privelege and splendour and yet desired more for spiritual status. An intellectual who never stopped searching for the truth and who tried to synthesise Hindu mysticism with Islamic Sufism.
Professor Gandhi does conclude her book poorly. She seems to think that Dara Shukoh had he ascended to the throne would have engaged in the same fraticidal violence as his brothers. I think that was a harsh and inaccurate assessment of Dara.
Dara Shukoh was very much the type of Philosopher King as envisioned by Plato. He was a seasoned warrior, a capable administrator, and an erudite man who always like Alexander craved for the company of ascetics.
November 22, 2020
"The Emperor who never was" is a supremely well researched book that delves into the lives of the Mughal princes during the Shah Jahan period; The beauty of Supriya Gandhi's writing is she lets the readers visualize the grandeur and magnificence of the era (rulers, cities, forts, wars, political intrigues, fledgling interactions with the European countries) while retaining the breakneck pace.
This book has endeared the character of Dara Shukoh to me (who was in the mould of erstwhile Indian philosopher kings ala Ashoka and Akbar) and made me wonder how India's trajectory may have been altogether different with Dara at the helm.
Liberal in outlook, Dara was more inclined towards Sufism and Vedanta and espoused a universal oneness of God. His insightful work Majma-ul-Bahrain (confluence of two seas) compared the religious tenets of Hinduism and Islam and comes up with common ground. This was later translated into Sanskrit as Samudrasangama. However, Dara’s final and most magnificent work remains his translation of Upanishads into Persian as Sirr-i-Akbar (The Greatest Secret). In this, the Mughal prince contends that Upanishads represent a distillation of the Vedas and outlined the ancient secrets of mystical knowledge and pure, original monotheism, which is fully in agreement with the Quran.
In administration, Dara was very dexterous, often acting as the Emperor Shah Jahan's deputy and transacted in all the business of State. Being always at the court, Dara had an occasion to come into contact with all those, who mattered in the State. Dara was an able administrator.
The only failing that Dara had is he woefully lacked in warfare stratagems and when the crunch time came, he had very few allies to truly count upon which ultimately proved costly and gave Aurangzeb the crown.
I would recommend this book to all the history-buffs !! Dara's thoughts on the same universal message from all religions stays very relevant in the times we live in !
This book has endeared the character of Dara Shukoh to me (who was in the mould of erstwhile Indian philosopher kings ala Ashoka and Akbar) and made me wonder how India's trajectory may have been altogether different with Dara at the helm.
Liberal in outlook, Dara was more inclined towards Sufism and Vedanta and espoused a universal oneness of God. His insightful work Majma-ul-Bahrain (confluence of two seas) compared the religious tenets of Hinduism and Islam and comes up with common ground. This was later translated into Sanskrit as Samudrasangama. However, Dara’s final and most magnificent work remains his translation of Upanishads into Persian as Sirr-i-Akbar (The Greatest Secret). In this, the Mughal prince contends that Upanishads represent a distillation of the Vedas and outlined the ancient secrets of mystical knowledge and pure, original monotheism, which is fully in agreement with the Quran.
In administration, Dara was very dexterous, often acting as the Emperor Shah Jahan's deputy and transacted in all the business of State. Being always at the court, Dara had an occasion to come into contact with all those, who mattered in the State. Dara was an able administrator.
The only failing that Dara had is he woefully lacked in warfare stratagems and when the crunch time came, he had very few allies to truly count upon which ultimately proved costly and gave Aurangzeb the crown.
I would recommend this book to all the history-buffs !! Dara's thoughts on the same universal message from all religions stays very relevant in the times we live in !
April 29, 2025
In a world where written history is a convoluted and biased affair, I was cautiously optimistic when I found this book about an almost emperor who is always deliberately excluded from the usual list of the “great” Mughals. But then this “great” title is fickle. For example why is Alexander “great” but Genghis Khan is not, while they were both militarily successful invaders who built massive empires? Coming back to this highly engaging, thoroughly researched, and from-the-heart biography of Dara Shukoh by Supriya Gandhi, I have nothing but praise for it. With its colourful list of characters, some well known, some not so much, it succeeded in bringing to life a prince who deserved much more space in the pages of history than he got. The author of “Majma ul Bahrain,” the proponent of the ganga jamni tehzeeb
of Hindustan, the tolerant and inclusive almost Akbar-us-Sani, the classic prince philosopher, the royal sufi, suffered the misfortune of being Aurangzeb’s rival and brother. Gandhi brings to life a very significant period in Indian history, mainly referencing primary sources, yet humanizing the various players involved. She courageously raises some interesting questions in the concluding pages of the book, imagining an alternate reality where Dara Shukoh would’ve been the emperor and not Aurangzeb. “Would South Asian history have taken a markedly different turn? Would its population had suffered the same inter religious conflicts between Hindus and Muslims that we are today? Would Pakistan ever have been created?”
Please do read it if you’re a medieval Indian history enthusiast like me.
of Hindustan, the tolerant and inclusive almost Akbar-us-Sani, the classic prince philosopher, the royal sufi, suffered the misfortune of being Aurangzeb’s rival and brother. Gandhi brings to life a very significant period in Indian history, mainly referencing primary sources, yet humanizing the various players involved. She courageously raises some interesting questions in the concluding pages of the book, imagining an alternate reality where Dara Shukoh would’ve been the emperor and not Aurangzeb. “Would South Asian history have taken a markedly different turn? Would its population had suffered the same inter religious conflicts between Hindus and Muslims that we are today? Would Pakistan ever have been created?”
Please do read it if you’re a medieval Indian history enthusiast like me.
December 11, 2020
The book tackles a difficult subject on which material seems to be sparse. What the author attempts do with the material makes for sometimes interesting reading & on other occasions, tedious. While it does shed light on the previously unknown or slightly mythical character juxtaposed against Aurangzeb (not particularly liked historical figure) and his efforts to understand the spiritual traditions in India, much of the conclusions drawn by the author don't seem to be sure. This leaves the reader in a quandary as to whether to rely upon the author when she doesnt seem to be herself sure of a particular fact. The book does however end on a more surer footing, when the author says that even Dara Shukoh would have resorted to fratricide to secure his throne so Aurangzeb's action should not be seen that drastic a measure, given the times & the stakes..
April 27, 2020
Dara Shukoh is a much heralded figure in Indian history and much of today’s sectarian plots are blamed to his losing out the battle of succession with his brother. This book explores a lot of Dara’s spiritual pursuits and his compilations and how they evolved as he expanded his scholarship. The underlying story of what his primary job was - to be his father’s undisputed successor - isn’t lost. In fact the book highlights how Dara may have taken a lot of things for granted as he sat at the center of power and more of less co-ruled the empire for most of the decade before the war of succession.
Is it a good book? Yes. But a word if caution. If you are a casual reader looking for a justification on why Aurangazeb is bad and Dara is good, this book is going to leave you very disappointed.
Is it a good book? Yes. But a word if caution. If you are a casual reader looking for a justification on why Aurangazeb is bad and Dara is good, this book is going to leave you very disappointed.
February 6, 2020
It is an excruciating researched book. It gives you the glimpse in to the life of the Mughal princes who we just touch upon during the history classes and then royally forget.
I have always felt that history is a multidimensional subject. It can never be taught in the school books in a single dimension because it not only tells the story of the past or one person but the entire generation. People associated, cities visited , the political scenario, treatment meted with women and whole lot of other things.
This book gave me the insight into the name called Dara Sukoh. His religious bent, his gentle heart . Its a must read for all history lovers.
I have always felt that history is a multidimensional subject. It can never be taught in the school books in a single dimension because it not only tells the story of the past or one person but the entire generation. People associated, cities visited , the political scenario, treatment meted with women and whole lot of other things.
This book gave me the insight into the name called Dara Sukoh. His religious bent, his gentle heart . Its a must read for all history lovers.
Read
August 31, 2022Definitely the best book I've read on the Mughal prince Dara Shukoh. I empathize with him and respect him, for his quest for spiritual knowledge, and his dedication to it.
The easiest thing for Dara, as the favorite son of his father, was to solely focus on his political career. But he took out significant time to focus on his spiritual life. But at the end, he lost on the political front to his brother, Aurangzeb.
I am soon going to read a book on Aurangzeb too. Let's see how he turned out to be as a ruler.
The easiest thing for Dara, as the favorite son of his father, was to solely focus on his political career. But he took out significant time to focus on his spiritual life. But at the end, he lost on the political front to his brother, Aurangzeb.
I am soon going to read a book on Aurangzeb too. Let's see how he turned out to be as a ruler.
February 22, 2022
I had a sympathy for Dara Shukoh after reading the Empire of the Moghuls. The mystic prince who was supposed to be the 6th Sultan of the great Mughal empire had a tragic end. This book dives into the philosophical and religious life of Dara and his sister Jahanara and also does a great job in describing different lineages of Islamic philosophy. Loved the experience.
January 4, 2021
The Emperor Who Never Was, Dara Shikoh in Mughal India is a meticulously researched and narratively written biography of the Mughal Prince, Dara Shikoh.
For the detailed article you can visit my website - https://dontbignorant.in/dara-shikoh-...
For the detailed article you can visit my website - https://dontbignorant.in/dara-shikoh-...
September 4, 2021
Although there are irrelevant details, and too much exposure into history of the Mughals, this book does provide a comprehensive account of Dara Shukoh’s life, the emperor who could have been, but who never was; If he might had been, the course of subcontinent’s history might entirely be different.
August 15, 2023
A very grounded biography of Dara Shukoh's intellectual pursuits as well as his tragic life.
Gandhi's depth of research is awe-inspiring and she cites a number of valuable original sources not yet accessible to the public. There's a lot of historiography and literary analysis since Dara was a prolific writer who continues to haunt Indian politics even today, but this is one of the most comprehensive and *level-headed* texts you'll find at the moment about Aurangzeb's elder brother. Gandhi does not veer into sentimentalism or detachment, and keeps the reader on the straight path as well.
Gandhi's depth of research is awe-inspiring and she cites a number of valuable original sources not yet accessible to the public. There's a lot of historiography and literary analysis since Dara was a prolific writer who continues to haunt Indian politics even today, but this is one of the most comprehensive and *level-headed* texts you'll find at the moment about Aurangzeb's elder brother. Gandhi does not veer into sentimentalism or detachment, and keeps the reader on the straight path as well.
June 20, 2020
will always be a Dara Shukoh stan
April 16, 2024
Poorly written, shifting from one end to another, bizarre storytelling. I have only started reading it & regretting on purchase.
August 22, 2025
True portrait of Dara Shikoh. Well written.
September 29, 2021
Book#13 of 2021: Mughal History!
Name: Dara Shukoh - The Emperor Who Never Was!
Author: Supriya Gandhi
Genre: Indian History
Rating:4/5
After reading the Moghuls series by Alex Rutherford, I guess I started taking a lot of interest in India's Mughal History. I started reading books by different authors and found this on Amazon. I found the title too intriguing; I read the epilogue and knew for sure that I had to buy it.
This book will take you inside the mind of Dara Shukoh; how did he start taking an interest in Philosophy, Sufism, Hinduism, and Christianity. This was also the phase where he started writing books and poetry. Though thoughts like Shah Jahan's biased behavior towards Dara Shukoh clouded Aurangzeb's mind, there are instances provided by the author that actually show how Dara Shukoh's behavior and acceptance of different religions took him away from Aurangzeb, which ultimately led to his own death. Hence, Dara Shukoh could never be crowned as the next Mughal emperor.
While reading, a thought came into my mind. Why did Dara never intervene in the state affairs to stop his father from the atrocious killings of Hindus, destruction of the temples, and forceful conversion into Islam? I did not get an answer to this question.
I would still recommend this book to anyone who is even remotely interested in understanding Indian History. This is not only because it talks about the Mughals' post-Akbar's reign, but because the author has done such extensive research, and you can find all the references in the bibliography section. I already added some of those to my TBR.
Name: Dara Shukoh - The Emperor Who Never Was!
Author: Supriya Gandhi
Genre: Indian History
Rating:4/5
After reading the Moghuls series by Alex Rutherford, I guess I started taking a lot of interest in India's Mughal History. I started reading books by different authors and found this on Amazon. I found the title too intriguing; I read the epilogue and knew for sure that I had to buy it.
This book will take you inside the mind of Dara Shukoh; how did he start taking an interest in Philosophy, Sufism, Hinduism, and Christianity. This was also the phase where he started writing books and poetry. Though thoughts like Shah Jahan's biased behavior towards Dara Shukoh clouded Aurangzeb's mind, there are instances provided by the author that actually show how Dara Shukoh's behavior and acceptance of different religions took him away from Aurangzeb, which ultimately led to his own death. Hence, Dara Shukoh could never be crowned as the next Mughal emperor.
While reading, a thought came into my mind. Why did Dara never intervene in the state affairs to stop his father from the atrocious killings of Hindus, destruction of the temples, and forceful conversion into Islam? I did not get an answer to this question.
I would still recommend this book to anyone who is even remotely interested in understanding Indian History. This is not only because it talks about the Mughals' post-Akbar's reign, but because the author has done such extensive research, and you can find all the references in the bibliography section. I already added some of those to my TBR.
February 21, 2025
A book about a man desperately clinging to multiple faith structures through a monotheistic lens attempting to fill a deep spiritual void while balancing life in the royal court
This entire review has been hidden because of spoilers.
Displaying 1 - 23 of 23 reviews