The Origin and Character of God: Ancient Israelite Religion through the Lens of Divinity

by Theodore J. Lewis

Few topics are as broad or as daunting as the God of Israel, that deity of the world's three monotheistic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, who has been worshiped over millennia. In the Hebrew Bible, God is characterized variously as militant, beneficent, inscrutable, loving, and judicious. Who is this divinity that has been represented as masculine and feminine, mythic and real, transcendent and intimate?

The Origin and Character of God is Theodore J. Lewis's monumental study of the vast subject that is the God of Israel. In it, he explores questions of historical origin, how God was characterized in literature, and how he was represented in archaeology and iconography. He also brings us into the lived reality of religious experience. Using the window of divinity to peer into the varieties of religious experience in ancient Israel, Lewis explores the royal use of religion for power, prestige, and control; the intimacy of family and household religion; priestly prerogatives and cultic status; prophetic challenges to injustice; and the pondering of theodicy by poetic sages.

A volume that is encyclopedic in scope but accessible in tone, The Origin and Character of God is an essential addition to the growing scholarship of one of humanity's most enduring concepts.

Genres: Religion, Theology, History, Nonfiction, Judaism, Ancient History, Biblical Studies

1096 pages, Hardcover

Published July 21, 2020

Reviews

[فؤاد · Rating 5 out of 5]

در جهان باستان دو نوع بت وجود داشت: بت‌های انسان‌وار، که چهره و اندام‌هایی مانند انسان برای خدایان در نظر می‌گرفتند؛ و بت‌های غیر انسان‌وار، که چهره و اندام انسانی نداشتند، همچون سنگ‌ها یا ستون‌هایی که نماد خدایان در نظر گرفته می‌شدند، و در پای آن‌ها برای خدایان قربانی می‌کردند. در قرآن این گونه بت‌های غیر انسان‌وار «اَنصاب» خوانده می‌شوند، از ریشهٔ «ن‌ص‌ب» به معنی برپا داشتن.

یهوه در کتاب مقدس گرچه بت انسان‌وار ندارد، اما گه‌گاه بت‌هایی غیر انسان‌وار برای او برپا می‌شود. کتاب مقدس این بت‌ها را «مَصِّبا» می‌خواند، از همان ریشهٔ «ن‌ص‌ب» که در عربی و عبری مشترک است.

در فصل ۲۸ کتاب پیدایش یعقوب در میانهٔ سفر، شبی سر بر سنگی می‌گذارد و می‌خوابد و خواب یهوه را می‌بیند. بی‌درنگ بیدار می‌شود و همان سنگ را (که واسطهٔ رؤیای یهوه به او شده) به عنوان «مَصِّبا» برپا می‌کند و بر آن روغن می‌ریزد و آن مکان را «بیت‌ایل» یا خانهٔ خدا می‌نامد. آن مکان بعدها یکی از معابد مهم یهوه می‌شود، و احتمالاً سنگی که یعقوب برپا کرده بود به عنوان زیارتگاه مرکزی معبد مورد پرستش قرار می‌گرفت.

در این جا به خصوص عمل روغن ریختن بر سنگ را باید مورد توجه قرار داد. در بخش‌های دیگر کتاب مقدس، هرگاه می‌خواهند روح خدا در شخص یا شیئی ساکن شود، بر آن روغن می‌ریزند. برای مثال پادشاهان در ابتدای سلطنتشان سرشان را با روغن تدهین می‌کنند، تا از روح خدا پر شوند و به راهنمایی روح خدا حکومت کنند. این جا هم یعقوب با ریختن روغن بر روی سنگ، روح خدا را در آن ساکن می‌سازد و از همین رو سنگ به «بیت‌ایل» یا خانهٔ خدا تبدیل می‌شود.

در معبد یهوه که در تل‌عراد کشف شده، در بخش اندرونی معبد که قدس‌الاقداس یا محل سکونت خدا تلقی می‌شد، دو ستون سنگی قرار دارد: یکی از آن یهوه و دیگری از آن همسرش اَشِرا. این نشان می‌دهد که اسرائیلیان باستان به‌واقع یهوه را از طریق بتی غیر انسان‌وار می‌پرستیدند.

تنها در دوره‌های متأخر بود که پرستش این بت‌ها به همراه پرستش اَشِرا، همسر خدا، ممنوع شد. کتاب تثنیه که یکی از آخرین بخش‌های تورات است، می‌گوید:

کنار قربانگاه یهوه خدایت که بهر خود بنا می‌کنی، تیرک‌های چوبی اَشِرا نصب مکن، و ستون‌های سنگی (به عبری: مَصِّبا) که یهوه خدایت از آن بیزار است نیز برپا مکن. (تثنیه ۱۶: ۲۱-۲۲)

[Luke Wagner · Rating 4 out of 5]

A hefty volume, covering a lot of ground. As a result, the reader only gets a bird’s eye view of each topic under consideration, which is a drawback of a project attempting to be so comprehensive (and Lewis himself recognizes this). In a given chapter, a whole host of biblical texts and extra-biblical material remains (textual and iconographic) are brought to bear on a specific topic (e.g., the characterization of Yahweh as Warrior), which can orient readers to the general topic, but may leave them with more questions than answers. I appreciated Lewis’s use of iconographic and epigraphic evidence throughout the book, which helped to bolster some of the conclusions he draws. All in all, this is a helpful reference volume, which can serve as a catalyst for deeper work in a particular area.

One final remark: endnotes will be the death of me.

[MegHansen · Rating 4 out of 5]

Very helpful as a reference for ancient Israelite religion, lots of good literary and archeological information as well as overviews of previous scholarship. Reading straight through is a bit** of a slog. Should be treated almost like an encyclopedia.

**this is generous

[John · Rating 5 out of 5]

Lewis is cautious with respect to his final conclusions about the origin of "Yahweh," that is, where and how a god named Yahweh came to be Israel's God. And yet, this most interesting part of Lewis' book (based on archeology, and texts both Biblical and from surrounding cultures) also suggests that Israel's adoption of Yahweh was a slow, politically fraught process. And that what we have in today's Hebrew Scriptures represents a late reordering and rewriting of ancient traditions to better serve the emerging Judaism, both official and familial, of that time. Lewis' treatment of Yahweh's history should be read with Adler's "The Origins of Judaism," and van Oorschot's "The Origin of Yahwism." There are two or three competing theories out there in the latest scholarship, but they all agree that the official adoption of Yahwism was a long slow process whose progress is sometimes difficult to track, in large measure because of the programatic effort of priests and scribes to make that adoption happen (for which see Karel Vander Toorn's "Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible."
I found this to be the most interesting aspect of this book.
Lewis spends most of his time delving into the many sides to Yahweh's character, and this part of the book is best used, I think (and as Lewis suggests) as a something to dip into if you are interested in some specific aspect of who Yahweh is in scripture and what he was for the Israelites.
Highly recommended. Not an easy or brief read, but a very satisfying one.

[Jon · Rating 5 out of 5]

An excellent read offering a deep dive into the scholarly study of the history of Israel both linguistically and archeologically. Lewis provides a well written and enjoyable guide through the material and presents a variety of perspectives and theories on each area of conversation, drawing modest assessments without overreaching what the limited data can justify. Would certainly recommend for anyone interested in a thorough study of the God of Israel from an academic, non-theological perspective. In particular, a great reference tool since Lewis goes to great lengths to share further resources and areas that require further study.

[Ray · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent survey of both Israelite and broader Ancient Near East writing and artifacts. A wealth of things to think about.

[Josh · Rating 5 out of 5]

An amazing overview of the complexities of reconstructing Ancient Israelite religion. Magisterial in scope and yet very readable, this is must-read for those passionate about these topics.

[Ahmed Ramadan · Rating 5 out of 5]

Amazing book, the most comprehansive i read until now about this subject