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A Larger Hope?, Volume 1: Universal Salvation from Christian Beginnings to Julian of Norwich
In the minds of some, universal salvation is a heretical idea that was imported into Christianity from pagan philosophies by Origen (c.185-253/4). Ilaria Ramelli argues that this picture is completely mistaken. She maintains that Christian theologians were the first people to proclaim that all will be saved and that their reasons for doing so were rooted in their faith in Christ. She demonstrates that, in fact, the idea of the final restoration of all creation (apokatastasis) was grounded upon the teachings of the Bible and the church's beliefs about Jesus' total triumph over sin, death, and evil through his incarnation, crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension.
Ramelli traces the Christian roots of Origen's teaching on apokatastasis. She argues that he was drawing on texts from Scripture and from various Christians who preceded him, theologians such as Bardaisan, Irenaeus, and Clement. She outlines Origen's often-misunderstood theology in some detail and then follows the legacy of his Christian universalism through the centuries that followed. We are treated to explorations of Origenian universal salvation in a host of Christian disciples, including Athanasius, Didymus the Blind, the Cappadocian fathers, Evagrius, Maximus the Confessor, John Scotus Eriugena, and Julian of Norwich.
"This large yet lucid volume is not only a recapitulation, in somewhat more popular terms, of the author's monumental study of apokatastasis, or universal restoration, in early Christian thought; it carries the story forward to the middle ages, adds material on annihilationism, and digests the author's previous work on the meaning of the word aionios into an appendix--all with an unmatched command of primary sources and scholarly literature."
--Mark Edwards, Professor of Theology, University of Oxford
"Is universalism an aberration in Christian theology? Definitely not, according to this remarkable assemblage of material . . . This book is strongly recommended for effectively trouncing the misconception that philosophy or heresy was primarily responsible for the universalist view--rather it was a widespread way of reading Scripture."
--Frances Young, Emeritus Professor of Theology, University of Birmingham, UK
"Ramelli's larger project on the status of universalism in the history of Christian thought has already altered the scholarly landscape in many absolutely crucial respects; this indispensable book adds a great many vital dimensions to that project, and adumbrates still more revelations in volumes to come. We are all very much in her debt."
--David BentleyHart, Professor, Notre Dame Institute for Advanced Study, Indiana
"May we hope for the salvation of all? In this compelling work, Ramelli demonstrates with careful scholarship and immense learning that there is indeed a tradition--sometimes hidden, sometimes manifest, rooted in the Scriptures and the conviction that all being is created by God--that embraces this larger hope that all beings will find their destiny in God."
--Andrew Louth, Emeritus Professor of Patristic and Byzantine Studies, Durham University
Ilaria L. E. Ramelli is Full Professor of Theology and K. Britt Chair in Christology at the Graduate School of Theology, SHMS (Thomas Aquinas University 'Angelicum'), senior visiting professor at major universities, and elected Senior Research Fellow at Durham University (for the second time), at Erfurt University, Max Weber Center (within a Research Award from the Humboldt Foundation), and Fowler Hamilton Fellow at the University of Oxford.
Ramelli traces the Christian roots of Origen's teaching on apokatastasis. She argues that he was drawing on texts from Scripture and from various Christians who preceded him, theologians such as Bardaisan, Irenaeus, and Clement. She outlines Origen's often-misunderstood theology in some detail and then follows the legacy of his Christian universalism through the centuries that followed. We are treated to explorations of Origenian universal salvation in a host of Christian disciples, including Athanasius, Didymus the Blind, the Cappadocian fathers, Evagrius, Maximus the Confessor, John Scotus Eriugena, and Julian of Norwich.
"This large yet lucid volume is not only a recapitulation, in somewhat more popular terms, of the author's monumental study of apokatastasis, or universal restoration, in early Christian thought; it carries the story forward to the middle ages, adds material on annihilationism, and digests the author's previous work on the meaning of the word aionios into an appendix--all with an unmatched command of primary sources and scholarly literature."
--Mark Edwards, Professor of Theology, University of Oxford
"Is universalism an aberration in Christian theology? Definitely not, according to this remarkable assemblage of material . . . This book is strongly recommended for effectively trouncing the misconception that philosophy or heresy was primarily responsible for the universalist view--rather it was a widespread way of reading Scripture."
--Frances Young, Emeritus Professor of Theology, University of Birmingham, UK
"Ramelli's larger project on the status of universalism in the history of Christian thought has already altered the scholarly landscape in many absolutely crucial respects; this indispensable book adds a great many vital dimensions to that project, and adumbrates still more revelations in volumes to come. We are all very much in her debt."
--David BentleyHart, Professor, Notre Dame Institute for Advanced Study, Indiana
"May we hope for the salvation of all? In this compelling work, Ramelli demonstrates with careful scholarship and immense learning that there is indeed a tradition--sometimes hidden, sometimes manifest, rooted in the Scriptures and the conviction that all being is created by God--that embraces this larger hope that all beings will find their destiny in God."
--Andrew Louth, Emeritus Professor of Patristic and Byzantine Studies, Durham University
Ilaria L. E. Ramelli is Full Professor of Theology and K. Britt Chair in Christology at the Graduate School of Theology, SHMS (Thomas Aquinas University 'Angelicum'), senior visiting professor at major universities, and elected Senior Research Fellow at Durham University (for the second time), at Erfurt University, Max Weber Center (within a Research Award from the Humboldt Foundation), and Fowler Hamilton Fellow at the University of Oxford.
302 pages, Kindle Edition
First published January 1, 2019
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About the author
Ilaria Ramelli
55 books26 followersA historian, scholarly author, and university professor, a specialist in ancient, late antique, and early mediaeval philosophy, especially the Platonic and Stoic traditions; ancient Christian philosophy, theology, and history (in Greek and Latin sources, partially also Syriac, Coptic and Armenian—with a predilection for Origen of Alexandria and the Origenian tradition down to the Cappadocian Fathers, Evagrius Ponticus, Dionysius the Areopagite, Maximus the Confessor, and John Scotus Eriugena, and including Augustine of Hippo whom she incorporates within the Origenian tradition); Hellenistic Judaism and Jewish-Christian relations; ancient religions and their philosophical interpretations; classics; and imperial and late antiquity. She is deeply interested in the relationship between Theology and Philosophy in ancient "pagan," Jewish, and Christian thought and endeavors to bridge the gap between these disciplines and promote an integrative (but also in-depth and specialistic) study of antiquity and late antiquity, against a tendency to compartmentalize research. She is also very much interested in contemporary philosophy, theology, and social and ethical issues, as her scholarly and popular publications attest.
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Displaying 1 - 22 of 22 reviews
October 28, 2019
About a month ago David Bentley Hart's book arguing that ultimately all humans will be reconciled to God (That All Shall Be Saved) was published to about as much fanfare as a book by a theologian will get (i.e., in circles of people who read such books, quite a lot of fanfare, but outside of that did anyone really notice?). I noticed a few reviewers criticizing Hart for not having many footnotes or for, basically, not writing an exhaustive theological work on the history of universal salvation. Of course, if you read Hart's intro, it is clear that is not the book he was setting out to write. His book is basically four essays making his argument. For a theologian and a scholar, his book is as close to a popular level pastoral book as you are to get.
All that to say, if you want a deeper understanding of the history of universal salvation in the Christian church, then this book by Illaria Ramelli is for you. It could be advertised as: "You've read Hart and you're wondering about his allusions to Maximus, Gregory and others? Ramelli fills in the gaps!"
That said, this is not a history of eschatology in the early church. Ramelli often refers to such books that do exist (such as Brian Daley's The Hope of the Early Church). Ramelli is only offering a history of universal salvation. She demonstrates that the hope that ultimately God will be reconciled to all creation through Jesus Christ was close to, if not was, the majority view in the early centuries of the church. Augustine even commented that in his day there were many who believed this idea. Ramelli shows that Augustine himself, in his anti-Manichean writings, appeared to lean this direction until turning against it in his anti-Pelagian writings.
Ramelli argues that the early Christian universalists rooted their arguments in scripture as opposed to the idea they were merely borrowing ideas from Greek philosophy. Irenaeus' theology of recapitulation, though not explicitly universalist, pointed in that direction. Of course, it was Origen who plays the largest role in this story. Ramelli takes pains to demonstrate that centuries later it was "Origenist" ideas that were condemned and not Origen himself, with most of the Origenist beliefs condemned were not even ones Origen himself held. Further, Origen was tremendously influential on pretty much all the champions of orthodox belief (Athanasius, the Cappadocians).
From Origen, we see either implicit or explicit belief in universal reconciliation in everyone: Gregory the Wonderworker, Pamphilius, Methodius, Athanasius, Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, Evagrius, Didymus the Blind, Diodore of Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Jerome (early in his career), Rufinus, Pseudo-Dionysius, Maximus the Confessor, Isaac of Ninevah and John Scotus Eriugena. It took Augustine (and his failure to read Greek) to build the case for an eternal unending hell combined with the political power Christianity gained with Christendom to create the "traditional" view of hell that we have known and feared for centuries.
Ramelli's book is not arguing that universal reconciliation is correct. Her argument is that those who first argued it rooted their arguments in scripture and their faith in Jesus. Universal reconciliation, for the first centuries of Christianity, was not a fringe view.
Of course, none of this makes it correct. Perhaps Tertullian and Augustine were correct and what became the traditional view, even if it was a minority view, rightly won out. You can find plenty of books and people arguing that hell will certainly last forever. But at the very least, Ramelli's book (along with the work of Hart, Brad Jersak and that aforementioned Brian Daley book) clearly demonstrate there is more room for conversation then we who grew up just assuming the traditional view is true once realized. I'd even go so far as to say that familiarity with these arguments ought to be required before entering future debates on the subject. We're past the point when we should defer to tradition because Augustine, Jonathan Edwards or our favorite Calvinist writer says so.
All that to say, if you want a deeper understanding of the history of universal salvation in the Christian church, then this book by Illaria Ramelli is for you. It could be advertised as: "You've read Hart and you're wondering about his allusions to Maximus, Gregory and others? Ramelli fills in the gaps!"
That said, this is not a history of eschatology in the early church. Ramelli often refers to such books that do exist (such as Brian Daley's The Hope of the Early Church). Ramelli is only offering a history of universal salvation. She demonstrates that the hope that ultimately God will be reconciled to all creation through Jesus Christ was close to, if not was, the majority view in the early centuries of the church. Augustine even commented that in his day there were many who believed this idea. Ramelli shows that Augustine himself, in his anti-Manichean writings, appeared to lean this direction until turning against it in his anti-Pelagian writings.
Ramelli argues that the early Christian universalists rooted their arguments in scripture as opposed to the idea they were merely borrowing ideas from Greek philosophy. Irenaeus' theology of recapitulation, though not explicitly universalist, pointed in that direction. Of course, it was Origen who plays the largest role in this story. Ramelli takes pains to demonstrate that centuries later it was "Origenist" ideas that were condemned and not Origen himself, with most of the Origenist beliefs condemned were not even ones Origen himself held. Further, Origen was tremendously influential on pretty much all the champions of orthodox belief (Athanasius, the Cappadocians).
From Origen, we see either implicit or explicit belief in universal reconciliation in everyone: Gregory the Wonderworker, Pamphilius, Methodius, Athanasius, Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, Evagrius, Didymus the Blind, Diodore of Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Jerome (early in his career), Rufinus, Pseudo-Dionysius, Maximus the Confessor, Isaac of Ninevah and John Scotus Eriugena. It took Augustine (and his failure to read Greek) to build the case for an eternal unending hell combined with the political power Christianity gained with Christendom to create the "traditional" view of hell that we have known and feared for centuries.
Ramelli's book is not arguing that universal reconciliation is correct. Her argument is that those who first argued it rooted their arguments in scripture and their faith in Jesus. Universal reconciliation, for the first centuries of Christianity, was not a fringe view.
Of course, none of this makes it correct. Perhaps Tertullian and Augustine were correct and what became the traditional view, even if it was a minority view, rightly won out. You can find plenty of books and people arguing that hell will certainly last forever. But at the very least, Ramelli's book (along with the work of Hart, Brad Jersak and that aforementioned Brian Daley book) clearly demonstrate there is more room for conversation then we who grew up just assuming the traditional view is true once realized. I'd even go so far as to say that familiarity with these arguments ought to be required before entering future debates on the subject. We're past the point when we should defer to tradition because Augustine, Jonathan Edwards or our favorite Calvinist writer says so.
March 27, 2023
An excellent volume of scholarly work offering a history of Christian belief in the universal salvation of all through Christ. This volume focuses mostly on prominent theologians, exegetes, bishops, and literature of the first 400 yrs but ultimately terminates its survey in the middle ages.
Ramelli is not trying to promote or attack belief in universal reconciliation. Rather, she offers a careful analysis of the origins of the belief, rooted in Scripture, rigorously developed by Origen, and continued by others (many considered bastions of orthodoxy). One need not believe in universal salvation to appreciate the rigorous, historical reconstruction.
I learned that one does not need to be a fruity liberal (e.g. Rob Bell) to believe that God will eventually bring all creation into free communion with him. In a time when people feel the need to draw battle lines and circle the wagons, it's helpful to honestly and charitably engage with the complexity of opposing beliefs.
Ramelli is not trying to promote or attack belief in universal reconciliation. Rather, she offers a careful analysis of the origins of the belief, rooted in Scripture, rigorously developed by Origen, and continued by others (many considered bastions of orthodoxy). One need not believe in universal salvation to appreciate the rigorous, historical reconstruction.
I learned that one does not need to be a fruity liberal (e.g. Rob Bell) to believe that God will eventually bring all creation into free communion with him. In a time when people feel the need to draw battle lines and circle the wagons, it's helpful to honestly and charitably engage with the complexity of opposing beliefs.
May 17, 2020
In her book “A Larger Hope? Universal Salvation from Christian Beginnings to Julian of Norwich”, Ilaria Ramelli aims to demonstrate the extent to which the Christian doctrine of Apokatastasis (being the universal restoration of all things, a.k.a. universal salvation) is present both in Scripture and in patristic literature. This is a shortened, popular volume of her much larger (and much more expensive) scholarly work, entitled "The Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis." It is not her intent to give us a comparison of those who argue for an eternal retribution vs. those who argue for a more limited period of punishment, followed by a restoration.
Given her thesis that universal restoration was not a limited phenomenon, but in fact widely held in the early church, Ramelli begins with an exploration of the various scripture texts used by the proponents of universal restoration. She then begins her patristic exploration with Ignatius of Antioch (1st century A.D.), mentions Justin Martyr and Tatian, and then discusses Theophilus of Antioch and Melito of Sardis, all 2nd century A.D.. She rounds out her discussion of early, pre-Origen patristics with discussions of Bardaisan of Edessa and Clement of Alexandria before turning her attention to a number of Christian texts: the Apocalypse of Peter; the Epistula Apostolorum; the Sibylline Oracles; the Martyrdom of the Holy Apostle Peter; the Life of Adam and Eve; the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs; the Testament of Joseph; the Testament of Abraham; and the Testament of Isaac. Prior to moving on to Origen, she finished her discussion by discussing Irenaeus of Lyon, in particular the relation between his doctrine of recapitulation and apokatastasis.
Sprinkled throughout this work are discussions of the two Greek words Aiônios and Aïdios, translated in English bibles as eternal or everlasting. In Greek, Aiônios refers to an Aeon or an Age, denoting an indeterminate period of time that nonetheless comes to an end. When referring to the judgment of God upon sinners, Aiônios is used. By contrast, Aïdios is only used in Sacred Scripture in reference to God. For a fuller discussion of these terms, see Ramelli’s monograph "Terms for Eternity: Aiônios and Aïdios in Classical and Christian Texts."
Origin is, of course, accorded his own chapter, as he is perhaps the most famous exponent of universal restoration. From there we follow the exposition of apokatastasis among his disciples and others into the fourth century. Among these include St. Anthony, and Dionysius of Alexandria. Among the defenders of Origen’s doctrine of apokatastasis we find St. Gregory the Wonderworker, St. Pamphilus Martyr, and even one of Origen’s critics, Methodius of Olympus in Lycia.
In the 4th century A.D. we find the doctrine of apokatastasis supported by the church historian Eusebius of Caesarea, Hilary of Poiters, Adamantius, Marcellus of Ancyra, St. Athanasius the Great, Marcarius of Magnesia, Didymus the Blind, and the Cappadocians: St. Basil of Caesarea, St Gregory of Nyssa, St Macrina the Younger, St Gregory Nazianzen, and Evagrius Ponticus. Besides the Cappadocians, apokatastasis was held in Antioch by Diodore of Tarsus and Titus of Basra (4th cent. A.D..) as well as Theodore of Mopsuestia (5th cent. A.D..)
Among the Latins the evidence is more problematic. The great scholar Jerome as well as St. Augustine both embraced apokatastasis in their early careers, only to dismiss it later in life. In Jerome’s case this was for “political considerations”, whereas for Augustine this was likely due to his ignorance of Greek and his reliance upon poor Latin translations. Unlike Jerome and Augustine, Rufinus remained a staunch support of Origen, and translated a number of his works into Latin. St. Ambrose of Milan was a follower of Origen and a supporter of apokatastasis. Likewise, the Conferences of John Cassian contain passages supportive of apokatastasis.
There are others in whom apokatastasis is given a sympathetic hearing. These include Isodore of Pelusium, John Chrysostom, Philoxenus of Mabbug, and Barsanuphius of Gaza (who is regarded as an anti-Origenist, yet recommends that Christians should pray that heretics and pagans, and that they will also receive God’s mercy.) Origenism took root in the fertile soil of Syriac Christianity. Some, like Stephen Bar Sudhaili expanded Origen’s thought into something close to pantheism. Others, like the Pseudo-Dionysius the Aeropagite, tangentially expounded upon some of Origen’s themes.
In the 6th century A.D. we see a number of monks distorting Origen’s system of thought into something radical. As a result, the Emporer Justinian wrote a number of anathemas which were presented to the 5th Ecumenical Council (2nd council of Constantinople,) and later appended to the Acts of the Council. These anathemas constitute the “so-called ‘condemnation of Origen,’” and scholars are in near-universal agreement that they were never approved by the assembled bishops.
The condemnation of Origen and his theology had the support of the Empire, and support for apokatastasis was rarely explicit after this. Despite this, we find ample evidence that St Maximus the Confessor was a supporter of Apokatastasis. While Maximus sometimes criticizes Origenism, it is not Origen’s actual doctines, but the distorted views that had cropped up in the intervening centuries. One of the charges against Maximus is that he was a supporter of apokastasis, so we should not be surprised to find evidence of it in various places – in particular the "Ambigua" and "Letters to Thalassius."
Ilaria Ramelli has provided a valuable service. She has not only provided patristic citations in support of apokatastasis, but has also shown how the doctrine developed over time as it was passed on from teacher to student, and how it was distributed geographically. None of this necessarily means that the doctrine of universal restoration is, or should be, the doctrine of the church. This is certainly not the thesis of her book. Nevertheless, her book does demonstrate that apokatastasis needs to be accorded a certain degree of respectability.
Given her thesis that universal restoration was not a limited phenomenon, but in fact widely held in the early church, Ramelli begins with an exploration of the various scripture texts used by the proponents of universal restoration. She then begins her patristic exploration with Ignatius of Antioch (1st century A.D.), mentions Justin Martyr and Tatian, and then discusses Theophilus of Antioch and Melito of Sardis, all 2nd century A.D.. She rounds out her discussion of early, pre-Origen patristics with discussions of Bardaisan of Edessa and Clement of Alexandria before turning her attention to a number of Christian texts: the Apocalypse of Peter; the Epistula Apostolorum; the Sibylline Oracles; the Martyrdom of the Holy Apostle Peter; the Life of Adam and Eve; the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs; the Testament of Joseph; the Testament of Abraham; and the Testament of Isaac. Prior to moving on to Origen, she finished her discussion by discussing Irenaeus of Lyon, in particular the relation between his doctrine of recapitulation and apokatastasis.
Sprinkled throughout this work are discussions of the two Greek words Aiônios and Aïdios, translated in English bibles as eternal or everlasting. In Greek, Aiônios refers to an Aeon or an Age, denoting an indeterminate period of time that nonetheless comes to an end. When referring to the judgment of God upon sinners, Aiônios is used. By contrast, Aïdios is only used in Sacred Scripture in reference to God. For a fuller discussion of these terms, see Ramelli’s monograph "Terms for Eternity: Aiônios and Aïdios in Classical and Christian Texts."
Origin is, of course, accorded his own chapter, as he is perhaps the most famous exponent of universal restoration. From there we follow the exposition of apokatastasis among his disciples and others into the fourth century. Among these include St. Anthony, and Dionysius of Alexandria. Among the defenders of Origen’s doctrine of apokatastasis we find St. Gregory the Wonderworker, St. Pamphilus Martyr, and even one of Origen’s critics, Methodius of Olympus in Lycia.
In the 4th century A.D. we find the doctrine of apokatastasis supported by the church historian Eusebius of Caesarea, Hilary of Poiters, Adamantius, Marcellus of Ancyra, St. Athanasius the Great, Marcarius of Magnesia, Didymus the Blind, and the Cappadocians: St. Basil of Caesarea, St Gregory of Nyssa, St Macrina the Younger, St Gregory Nazianzen, and Evagrius Ponticus. Besides the Cappadocians, apokatastasis was held in Antioch by Diodore of Tarsus and Titus of Basra (4th cent. A.D..) as well as Theodore of Mopsuestia (5th cent. A.D..)
Among the Latins the evidence is more problematic. The great scholar Jerome as well as St. Augustine both embraced apokatastasis in their early careers, only to dismiss it later in life. In Jerome’s case this was for “political considerations”, whereas for Augustine this was likely due to his ignorance of Greek and his reliance upon poor Latin translations. Unlike Jerome and Augustine, Rufinus remained a staunch support of Origen, and translated a number of his works into Latin. St. Ambrose of Milan was a follower of Origen and a supporter of apokatastasis. Likewise, the Conferences of John Cassian contain passages supportive of apokatastasis.
There are others in whom apokatastasis is given a sympathetic hearing. These include Isodore of Pelusium, John Chrysostom, Philoxenus of Mabbug, and Barsanuphius of Gaza (who is regarded as an anti-Origenist, yet recommends that Christians should pray that heretics and pagans, and that they will also receive God’s mercy.) Origenism took root in the fertile soil of Syriac Christianity. Some, like Stephen Bar Sudhaili expanded Origen’s thought into something close to pantheism. Others, like the Pseudo-Dionysius the Aeropagite, tangentially expounded upon some of Origen’s themes.
In the 6th century A.D. we see a number of monks distorting Origen’s system of thought into something radical. As a result, the Emporer Justinian wrote a number of anathemas which were presented to the 5th Ecumenical Council (2nd council of Constantinople,) and later appended to the Acts of the Council. These anathemas constitute the “so-called ‘condemnation of Origen,’” and scholars are in near-universal agreement that they were never approved by the assembled bishops.
The condemnation of Origen and his theology had the support of the Empire, and support for apokatastasis was rarely explicit after this. Despite this, we find ample evidence that St Maximus the Confessor was a supporter of Apokatastasis. While Maximus sometimes criticizes Origenism, it is not Origen’s actual doctines, but the distorted views that had cropped up in the intervening centuries. One of the charges against Maximus is that he was a supporter of apokastasis, so we should not be surprised to find evidence of it in various places – in particular the "Ambigua" and "Letters to Thalassius."
Ilaria Ramelli has provided a valuable service. She has not only provided patristic citations in support of apokatastasis, but has also shown how the doctrine developed over time as it was passed on from teacher to student, and how it was distributed geographically. None of this necessarily means that the doctrine of universal restoration is, or should be, the doctrine of the church. This is certainly not the thesis of her book. Nevertheless, her book does demonstrate that apokatastasis needs to be accorded a certain degree of respectability.
December 31, 2019
Growing up in modern evangelicalism, I was often told (and could myself argue at length) that the Christian worldview precluded the possibility that all people would be saved. When Rob Bell, who had previously created some outstanding Bible study content, wrote a book suggesting that perhaps there was more to the picture of heaven and hell, he was written off by many evangelicals as having come unmoored and having slid into "heresy", albeit with good (though far too gentle) intentions. Years later I would grapple with the issues of predestination and hell myself, only to discover that Rob Bell was not alone - there were in fact many Christians who believed that all people would be saved. Even more astonishingly, I found that this was not a new belief formulated in light of modern sensibilities - though it has mostly been a minority report in Christian history, it has also had a presence in Christianity for nearly two millennia.
In A Large Hope?, Volume 1 Ilaria Ramelli does a masterful job documenting the presence of universalism in the early Christian tradition, starting with the apparent biblical support for universalism and leading all the way to Julian of Norwich in the 15th century. Her exposition of this history centers around Origen, whose work on universalism was the culmination of 200 years of Christian theological reflection and was the defining standard for Christian universalism for nearly 1000 years to come. The many early Christian theologians who supported universalism are quoted at length, and Ramelli does a nice job explaining how their ideas about universal salvation connect with their wider theological and philosophical considerations. She helpfully points out that universalism was developed in Christianity before it was developed in any other faith tradition, and that it was often employed in defense of Christian orthodoxy, especially in the defense of God's character - even St. Augustine, who more than any other theologian has shaped Western thought about an eternal hell, employed this sort of defense early in his career. In most cases, early Christian universalism was also seen as being enabled by Christ, supported by Scripture, tied to a holistic physical and spiritual resurrection, and consonant with ideas of purgatorial suffering in the afterlife. It was also understood as a natural corollary to the idea that evil does not exist in itself.
Also included as an appendix is an overview on the Greek words that get translated as “eternal” (etc.) in our Bibles. Ramelli highlights how the Latin translation of the New Testament (which was used by most of the early Western theologians, including Augustine) inadvertently obscured some of the biblical language about eternity, and thus the idea of an eternal hell seemed more biblical to Western theologians than to Eastern theologians.
Does any of this make Christian universalism true? Not necessarily. But it at least cannot be ruled out as unorthodox in and of itself; it is a well-attested strand of theological thought that belongs properly to Christianity (as one of many eschatological options). Ramelli has done a great service to this conversation by publishing her research in such an accessible form, and I look forward to reading the second installment by Robin Parry.
In A Large Hope?, Volume 1 Ilaria Ramelli does a masterful job documenting the presence of universalism in the early Christian tradition, starting with the apparent biblical support for universalism and leading all the way to Julian of Norwich in the 15th century. Her exposition of this history centers around Origen, whose work on universalism was the culmination of 200 years of Christian theological reflection and was the defining standard for Christian universalism for nearly 1000 years to come. The many early Christian theologians who supported universalism are quoted at length, and Ramelli does a nice job explaining how their ideas about universal salvation connect with their wider theological and philosophical considerations. She helpfully points out that universalism was developed in Christianity before it was developed in any other faith tradition, and that it was often employed in defense of Christian orthodoxy, especially in the defense of God's character - even St. Augustine, who more than any other theologian has shaped Western thought about an eternal hell, employed this sort of defense early in his career. In most cases, early Christian universalism was also seen as being enabled by Christ, supported by Scripture, tied to a holistic physical and spiritual resurrection, and consonant with ideas of purgatorial suffering in the afterlife. It was also understood as a natural corollary to the idea that evil does not exist in itself.
Also included as an appendix is an overview on the Greek words that get translated as “eternal” (etc.) in our Bibles. Ramelli highlights how the Latin translation of the New Testament (which was used by most of the early Western theologians, including Augustine) inadvertently obscured some of the biblical language about eternity, and thus the idea of an eternal hell seemed more biblical to Western theologians than to Eastern theologians.
Does any of this make Christian universalism true? Not necessarily. But it at least cannot be ruled out as unorthodox in and of itself; it is a well-attested strand of theological thought that belongs properly to Christianity (as one of many eschatological options). Ramelli has done a great service to this conversation by publishing her research in such an accessible form, and I look forward to reading the second installment by Robin Parry.
November 28, 2022
It is easy to come to conclusions about what others believe and be wrong. This is certainly true for me when it comes to the idea of Christian Universalism. My entire life I have simply lumped Christian Universalism into all other beliefs about Universalism. I have believed that Christian Universalism is simply a view that a few fringe people have promoted with little to no Biblical view of Kingdom or Lordship to Jesus. On this topic I must confess that I have been ignorant. I say all this because regardless of what one believes on this topic Ramelli does a great job showing that for hundreds of years this belief was not fringe but part of mainstream thinking. Ramelli deals primarily with the works of the early church fathers especially its biggest supporter Origen. She also does a great job of showing that unlike other forms of pagan Universalism that seek to excuse ones ethics and behaviors or even avoid punishment for evil that Christian Universalism does not avoid evil or punishment. Ramelli also is not afraid to deal with great giants like Augustine who challenged Christian Universalism. Although I have never identified myself as a Christian Universalist I am thankful that I have read this work because it has given me a richer understanding of what others believe and also challenges my own beliefs.
November 22, 2023
This is a great compliment to Hart’s fantastic work, as this work gives a more historical look. There is certainly hermeneutical and philosophical rationales discussed, but the goal is to show the breadth universalism had in the early church. The book wonderfully succeeded at doing just that.
As I respect Origen a great deal, it was interesting learning how he fell out of favor and why that’s a big problem, because he was a great theologian who informed so many other great theologians.
Learning about Justinian and the context for the decreeing of ECT as the only acceptable doctrine was interesting (and knowing it was the same council that accepted the perpetual virginity of Mary). I also appreciated learning about the Greek terms for eternal and how the Latin skewed interpretations for those like Augustine who were influential despite not knowing Greek well.
The book doesn’t seek to argue for universalism, but rather shows how universalism was once widely accepted - and accepted by some of the greatest theologians in church history. This should give us great pause in excluding certain theological traditions as unacceptable or heretical.
As I respect Origen a great deal, it was interesting learning how he fell out of favor and why that’s a big problem, because he was a great theologian who informed so many other great theologians.
Learning about Justinian and the context for the decreeing of ECT as the only acceptable doctrine was interesting (and knowing it was the same council that accepted the perpetual virginity of Mary). I also appreciated learning about the Greek terms for eternal and how the Latin skewed interpretations for those like Augustine who were influential despite not knowing Greek well.
The book doesn’t seek to argue for universalism, but rather shows how universalism was once widely accepted - and accepted by some of the greatest theologians in church history. This should give us great pause in excluding certain theological traditions as unacceptable or heretical.
May 7, 2025
Simply excellent scholarship, based on close readings of the Fathers and the NT in the original languages (Ramelli, with ease, attends to primary sources in Coptic, Syriac, Greek, and Latin). My only critique of the book is its repetitiveness; this is due to no fault of Ramelli’s prose, but simply to how similar many of the Greek Fathers (and Eriugena) were in their theological analysis of this topic. This doesn’t all start with Origen, either. Ramelli makes compelling cases for Irenaeus and Clement as well, and the appendix (summarizing her other monograph on αιωνιος in Late Antiquity) on terms for eternity is very useful in making everything piece together in an “aha!” Moment: seeing how both the Scriptural language makes sense, and how the doctrine of eternal hell started (with Latin mistranslations inherited by Tertullian and Augustine).
As an aside on Irenaeus, based on Behr’s recently released work, I can only assume he would agree with Ramelli here. I suppose we will have to wait for his life’s work to be completed (a new critical edition and translation of Against Heresies) before he makes his final conclusion on Irenaeus’s eschatology.
As an aside on Irenaeus, based on Behr’s recently released work, I can only assume he would agree with Ramelli here. I suppose we will have to wait for his life’s work to be completed (a new critical edition and translation of Against Heresies) before he makes his final conclusion on Irenaeus’s eschatology.
August 24, 2025
What a superb book. I HIGHLY recommend reading it. Ramelli puts “eternal” or αἰώνιον fire and αἰώνιος punishment in their context, noting they are used to mean otherworldly, and notes only God and life in the other world are truly called eternal in the Greek. Latin mistranslations and misinterpretations certainly contributed to the rise of belief in eternal conscious torment. She also notes many biblical passages that call God a consuming and refining fire, that state all will be salted with fire, and that God desires ALL to be saved. Church Fathers and Saints before Origen saw God as only exerting educative corrections, not retributive punishments. After Origen, the idea that if one did not repent within one’s earthly life, there would be no possibility of doing so after death, as though one’s free will should be lost, was alien to Gregory of Nyssa, Maximus the Confessor, and Eriugena. She clears up that Origen’s Apokatastasis alone was NOT what got him condemned and points out that the gnostics mainly thought that the elite would participate in the apokatastasis, and that without their bodies, so it was truly Christian theologians who first proclaimed the message of universal restoration.
There are many interesting texts brought up such as the Apocalypse of Peter which include a prediction of the eschatological intercession of the just in favor of the damned and the consequent liberation of the latter from hell.
In the end of the book she gives a great summary of what Christian Universalism is. Here are some excerpts from that:
From the very first Christian centuries, as well as in the New Testament, Christian Universalism had supporters.
This is not a doctrine that arises from moral relaxation—as it was depicted during the Origenistic controversy—but the expectation of the total victory of God over evil, which is grounded in the inhumanation, death, and resurrection of Christ, his work as Logos-teacher and physician, and in God’s “goodness.”
Some Platonic church fathers—among whom we find Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, and Evagrius—were convinced that God alone is the Good and the Being; creatures can only participate in the Good and in Being.However, due to their free will, creatures are also capable of falling into evil (i.e., non-being). Evil has no positive existence, being no creature of God, but is a lack of Good and thus a lack of Being. Rational creatures who choose evil face spiritual death, but there is a resurrection from it thanks to Christ, the only human being without evil. By assuming all humanity in himself, Christ abolishes evil from it. At the same time, every rational creature will have to adhere to the Good freely. Furthermore, these fathers were certain that, sooner or later, all will voluntarily adhere to the Good, because all rational creatures, whose logos is in the image of Christ-Logos, after knowing the Good with a pure and not obfuscated intellectual sight, will love it. No rational creature will be saved against its will! Instead, what these fathers were certain of is that in the end all will want to be saved and will voluntarily adhere to the Good and be brought to God, the Good, by Christ.
Universal restoration and salvation depends on the grace of God, who “wants all humans to be saved.” Gregory of Nyssa was clear, right until the end of his life, in his homilies on the Song of Songs, that this divine will shall be fulfilled (“until the One who wants all humans to be saved has reached his aim”). The Christian hope, which is given voice by St. Paul in 1 Corinthians 15:24–28, is that in the end, when all have been purified and illuminated by Christ-Logos and all evil has been eliminated, all those who were enemies will submit in what Origen and many theologians over the centuries regarded as a salvific submission, whereas “the last enemy,” death, which is no creature of God, will be destroyed. Then will St. Paul’s prophecy come true that “God will be all in all” (1 Cor 15:28).
There are many interesting texts brought up such as the Apocalypse of Peter which include a prediction of the eschatological intercession of the just in favor of the damned and the consequent liberation of the latter from hell.
In the end of the book she gives a great summary of what Christian Universalism is. Here are some excerpts from that:
From the very first Christian centuries, as well as in the New Testament, Christian Universalism had supporters.
This is not a doctrine that arises from moral relaxation—as it was depicted during the Origenistic controversy—but the expectation of the total victory of God over evil, which is grounded in the inhumanation, death, and resurrection of Christ, his work as Logos-teacher and physician, and in God’s “goodness.”
Some Platonic church fathers—among whom we find Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, and Evagrius—were convinced that God alone is the Good and the Being; creatures can only participate in the Good and in Being.However, due to their free will, creatures are also capable of falling into evil (i.e., non-being). Evil has no positive existence, being no creature of God, but is a lack of Good and thus a lack of Being. Rational creatures who choose evil face spiritual death, but there is a resurrection from it thanks to Christ, the only human being without evil. By assuming all humanity in himself, Christ abolishes evil from it. At the same time, every rational creature will have to adhere to the Good freely. Furthermore, these fathers were certain that, sooner or later, all will voluntarily adhere to the Good, because all rational creatures, whose logos is in the image of Christ-Logos, after knowing the Good with a pure and not obfuscated intellectual sight, will love it. No rational creature will be saved against its will! Instead, what these fathers were certain of is that in the end all will want to be saved and will voluntarily adhere to the Good and be brought to God, the Good, by Christ.
Universal restoration and salvation depends on the grace of God, who “wants all humans to be saved.” Gregory of Nyssa was clear, right until the end of his life, in his homilies on the Song of Songs, that this divine will shall be fulfilled (“until the One who wants all humans to be saved has reached his aim”). The Christian hope, which is given voice by St. Paul in 1 Corinthians 15:24–28, is that in the end, when all have been purified and illuminated by Christ-Logos and all evil has been eliminated, all those who were enemies will submit in what Origen and many theologians over the centuries regarded as a salvific submission, whereas “the last enemy,” death, which is no creature of God, will be destroyed. Then will St. Paul’s prophecy come true that “God will be all in all” (1 Cor 15:28).
October 28, 2024
I will preface this review by stating that I am not a Universalist. However, I have grown more and more interested in the notion of Apokatastasis as I have delved deeper into studies of Origen and read more of Maximus the Confessor. Ramelli argues that a Christian doctrine of Apokatastasis (universal salvation/restoration) is evident in a host of orthodox fathers and theologians from the patristic and medieval periods of church history. The level of research performed by Ramelli in the primary sources in the original Latin and Greek languages performed by Ramelli is absolutely incredible. Her knowledge of the secondary literature is also remarkable and truly inspiring for my own scholarship. She shows how primary source study of patristic literature is to be done. While she is a historian, she does show her own theological perspective at times throughout as seemingly in favor of universalism. Her treatment on Origen in this work is the standout. She shows how the doctrine of universal reconciliation did not originate from Origen or from Gnosticism, but she argues that it is a distinctly Christian concept that the early fathers derived from the biblical texts such as Acts 3 and specifically the writing of Paul in 1 Corinthians 15. Ramelli also shows how this prevalent patristic doctrine would later come to be condemned as heresy due to certain political reasons and through the Western church’s reliance on Latin and ignorance of the original Greek terminology for “eternal” and “other-worldly” in the biblical text. This issue about Greek terminology is a question I have had since taking Greek 2, and Ramelli clears it up very well and convincingly throughout this book (especially in her appendix at the end). She also makes the ultimate argument that in the Greek New Testament and in the Church Fathers, fire is something used by God for therapeutic purposes to purge sin and evil from the human created by God so that they can eventually be restored to union with God. Such purging is not eternal since punishment is meted out according to the finite nature of human sin—in other words, eternal punishment for deeds committed in a very limited lifespan does not make sense through the lens of justice. Ramelli also traces the idea of the ontological non-substantial nature of evil throughout the early-medieval church. Evil and death are not part of God’s original creation. Death will even be the last enemy to be destroyed, so the second death cannot be eternal. This book showed me that Christian Universalism is not necessarily a heretical idea as it was upheld by many orthodox theologians in the early church who rooted the idea in Scripture and ethical reasoning.
February 12, 2025
This a masterful and transformative exploration of universal salvation in early Christian theology. With her profound expertise in patristics and ancient philosophy, Ramelli crafts a compelling narrative that challenges modern assumptions about divine justice and redemption, offering readers a meticulously researched yet accessible work that resonates deeply in today’s world.
At its core, it delves into the ancient doctrine of "apokatastasis" the belief in the ultimate restoration of all creation. Ramelli meticulously traces this concept through the writings of early church luminaries such as Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, and Evagrius (just to name a few) situating their ideas within the theological and philosophical contexts of their time.
Ramelli's scholarship is staggering in scope, drawing from scripture, patristic texts, and Hellenistic philosophy to build a nuanced case for universalism’s prevalence in early Christian thought. What sets this book apart is Ramelli’s ability to balance academic rigor with clarity, making complex debates accessible without oversimplification.
The book’s structure is both logical and engaging, guiding readers chronologically through the development of universalist ideas from the early church to Medieval-era while addressing counterarguments with fairness. Ramelli does not shy away from contentious debates but approaches them with a scholar’s precision and a storyteller’s flair. Her prose is infused with a palpable passion for the subject, transforming what could be an arcane academic discussion into a vibrant, hopeful dialogue.
Ramelli argues persuasively that the early Christian message was rooted in a vision of divine love so expansive that no soul is beyond redemption (even the devil and demons). This perspective not only challenges modern theological paradigms but also offers profound comfort and inspiration.
For scholars, this book is an indispensable resource, brimming with fresh insights and meticulous citations. For lay readers, it is a thought-provoking journey that bridges ancient wisdom and contemporary relevance. Ramelli’s erudition and eloquence make this text a landmark contribution to theological discourse, one that will ignite conversations for years to come.
In the end, Ramelli reminds us that hope is not a passive wish but a radical, transformative force. "A Larger Hope" is not just a book; it is an invitation to envision a world healed by love. A must-read for anyone seeking depth, clarity, and a renewed faith in the power of redemption.
At its core, it delves into the ancient doctrine of "apokatastasis" the belief in the ultimate restoration of all creation. Ramelli meticulously traces this concept through the writings of early church luminaries such as Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, and Evagrius (just to name a few) situating their ideas within the theological and philosophical contexts of their time.
Ramelli's scholarship is staggering in scope, drawing from scripture, patristic texts, and Hellenistic philosophy to build a nuanced case for universalism’s prevalence in early Christian thought. What sets this book apart is Ramelli’s ability to balance academic rigor with clarity, making complex debates accessible without oversimplification.
The book’s structure is both logical and engaging, guiding readers chronologically through the development of universalist ideas from the early church to Medieval-era while addressing counterarguments with fairness. Ramelli does not shy away from contentious debates but approaches them with a scholar’s precision and a storyteller’s flair. Her prose is infused with a palpable passion for the subject, transforming what could be an arcane academic discussion into a vibrant, hopeful dialogue.
Ramelli argues persuasively that the early Christian message was rooted in a vision of divine love so expansive that no soul is beyond redemption (even the devil and demons). This perspective not only challenges modern theological paradigms but also offers profound comfort and inspiration.
For scholars, this book is an indispensable resource, brimming with fresh insights and meticulous citations. For lay readers, it is a thought-provoking journey that bridges ancient wisdom and contemporary relevance. Ramelli’s erudition and eloquence make this text a landmark contribution to theological discourse, one that will ignite conversations for years to come.
In the end, Ramelli reminds us that hope is not a passive wish but a radical, transformative force. "A Larger Hope" is not just a book; it is an invitation to envision a world healed by love. A must-read for anyone seeking depth, clarity, and a renewed faith in the power of redemption.
August 4, 2022
Ramelli’s condensed and accessible overview of Christian Apokatastasis shed’s a much needed light on a topic often thought of as heretical. Her intellectual investment of each historical proponent is more than adequate for modern readers of history to consider the doctrine as a missing element in modern chrisian theology. I appreciated her ability to delve into the works of Orgien and show its paradigmatic importance for subsequent christian thinkers such as Eusebius, Jerome, Athanasius and even Augustine. It is striking how important the doctrine has been to the creeds and the formation of other theological doctrines namely; the non-subsistence of evil and the will in relation to the good.
I plan on keeping this book as a good reference for ancient thinkers. My only critique is that I wished she had explored some more of the ramifications of such a doctrine on other topics - though I'm sure that would have ended up as a much larger book. And finally her response to Michael Mcclymond at the end of the book was more than an adequate rebuttal of his refutations of Apokatastasis as it is being espoused today.
I plan on keeping this book as a good reference for ancient thinkers. My only critique is that I wished she had explored some more of the ramifications of such a doctrine on other topics - though I'm sure that would have ended up as a much larger book. And finally her response to Michael Mcclymond at the end of the book was more than an adequate rebuttal of his refutations of Apokatastasis as it is being espoused today.
March 31, 2023
Ramelli is a genuinely brilliant thinker, and anyone interested in Christian Universalism should read this book as well as Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis: A Critical Assessment from the New Testament to Eriugena. It is necessary to read both, since this volume contains material not in the longer treatment. One should also balance this by reading The Devil's Redemption: A New History and Interpretation of Christian Universalism. McClymond is a vocal opponent of Universalism, and his history contains material not covered by Ramelli.
December 2, 2023
This is a well-written, orderly look at what the earliest church fathers thought and taught. For me, it has been a life-altering book and answered/clarified many questions that I have had as I've grown older. Questions that have arisen because of life-lived and long-held beliefs/teachings of the church that no longer made sense to me. This is a thoughtful read, not for the faint of heart, but for those truly searching for deeper answers. It is refreshing to read something that is not Sunday school class answers, flippant and based on flawed interpretations of Scripture.
January 5, 2021
What if "eternal" does not mean what you think it means?
Ramelli's book is not only an exploration of universalist themes from the Bible through the Middle Ages, but it is a powerful study on the idea of eternity itself.
As the Church begins to come back around to the idea of Universal salvation, this book will be remembered as one that helped fuel the renaissance of grace in Christian theology.
Ramelli's book is not only an exploration of universalist themes from the Bible through the Middle Ages, but it is a powerful study on the idea of eternity itself.
As the Church begins to come back around to the idea of Universal salvation, this book will be remembered as one that helped fuel the renaissance of grace in Christian theology.
November 14, 2024
This book is a bit of a slog, but one wants it to be, because its main value for me, an academic-adjacent reader, is its comprehensiveness. Plus, it's a slog that is FILLED with glorious quotations from scripture, church mothers and fathers, theologians and mystics.
"On the occasion of the restoration [apokatastasis] of absolutely all beings, Paul said that creation itself will be transformed from slavery into freedom" (Eusebius).
Amen.
"On the occasion of the restoration [apokatastasis] of absolutely all beings, Paul said that creation itself will be transformed from slavery into freedom" (Eusebius).
Amen.
October 20, 2025
A masterclass
Ramelli’s scholarship is based on 10,000 hours of research, patient study and forensic analysis. Setting the standard in patristics, Ramelli is fair, balanced and charitable to her critics. Cogently detailing the foundations of her findings, Ramelli is compelling in her presentation of the available evidence. Ramelli enters and owns the eco-system and discloses a masterclass in making the case for universal salvation.
Ramelli’s scholarship is based on 10,000 hours of research, patient study and forensic analysis. Setting the standard in patristics, Ramelli is fair, balanced and charitable to her critics. Cogently detailing the foundations of her findings, Ramelli is compelling in her presentation of the available evidence. Ramelli enters and owns the eco-system and discloses a masterclass in making the case for universal salvation.
August 2, 2021
A very important and much needed endeavor of scholarship. Ramelli is clear, thorough, and focused in this work. She demonstrates very well that apokatastasis was accepted much more than many beloved and also had major influence on those who didn’t fully accept it.
December 23, 2021
Ramelli presents the biblical and historical support for universal salvation in such a way that it becomes so clearly the most coherent and well-attested doctrine of the scope of Christ's saving work.
Read
May 16, 2025Ramelli reads ambiguous thinkers as more firmly universalist than I think they were, but it's still a solid portrayal of the history of universal salvation up through the Middle Ages as long as you keep that in mind.
August 16, 2021
Apokatastasis at its finest exploration thanks to Ramelli.
June 19, 2022
Outstanding scholarship that is nonetheless accessible to the layman! In A Larger Hope: Volume 1, Ramelli dives deep into church history and convincingly illustrates that many more church fathers were likely universalist in their leanings than many people (even scholars) generally fathom. While for your average reader, this book may seem somewhat dry and monotonous, it makes for a must-read for anyone who is deeply interested in the apokatastasis (like myself). I must say that my favorite aspect of the work was probably her subtly snarky responses to Michael McClymond’s idiocy at the end!
In the brief section that summarizes scriptural support for universal salvation (before then surveying the history), I was a bit disappointed to find that Ramelli seemed to often paraphrase the scriptures, according to what they were trying to convey, rather than what the passages actually said. For instance, in writing out Romans 5:19, Ramelli writes “all will be made righteous,” rather than “the many will be made righteous.” While in context this is clearly what Paul seems to have been communicating in Romans 5:19, I worry that changing the semantics in this and other places in order to better suit universal reconciliation might cause traditionalists to lose faith in Ramelli. However, the focus of this book is the history of universal salvation doctrines—not their Biblical backing. And, given the generally high scholarly praise of her work, I trust that she did not tweak the text as liberally when translating church fathers. But, if not for this, I would have proceeded with more caution.
All things considered, A Larger Hope: Volume 1 makes for an edifying read that taught me a great deal more about church history!
In the brief section that summarizes scriptural support for universal salvation (before then surveying the history), I was a bit disappointed to find that Ramelli seemed to often paraphrase the scriptures, according to what they were trying to convey, rather than what the passages actually said. For instance, in writing out Romans 5:19, Ramelli writes “all will be made righteous,” rather than “the many will be made righteous.” While in context this is clearly what Paul seems to have been communicating in Romans 5:19, I worry that changing the semantics in this and other places in order to better suit universal reconciliation might cause traditionalists to lose faith in Ramelli. However, the focus of this book is the history of universal salvation doctrines—not their Biblical backing. And, given the generally high scholarly praise of her work, I trust that she did not tweak the text as liberally when translating church fathers. But, if not for this, I would have proceeded with more caution.
All things considered, A Larger Hope: Volume 1 makes for an edifying read that taught me a great deal more about church history!
Want to read
November 6, 2023"Ambrose—unlike Augustine—had a perfect mastery of Greek" is such an ominous turning point in this history.
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