Игры тестостерона и другие вопросы биологии поведения

by Robert M. Sapolsky, Роберт Сапольски

- Тестостерон не вызывает агрессию, он усиливает ее проявления в ответ на провоцирующие факторы среды.
- Приматы вообще и люди в частности — единственный вид, склонный к первооткрывательству и добровольному переселению из комфортной среды во враждебную и неизвестную. Феномен невынужденной миграции — уход из дома в поисках лучшей доли — имеет биологические корни, свойственные нашему виду.
- Люди из стран третьего мира, приобщившись к цивилизации, образованию и благам западного мира, начинают болеть и рано умирают. В прямом смысле — от хорошей жизни. При одинаковом питании и уровне дохода уроженец Нью-Йорка будет жить здоровым и долго, а выходец из Намибии получит инфаркт или инсульт в 50 лет.
- Мартин Лютер — неврастеник с обсессивно-компульсивным расстройством. Религиозные лидеры, от шаманов до знаменитых христианских мучеников, имеют общие черты, свойственные психопатическим личностям с особенностями развития мозга, и склонны к навязчивым ритуалам.

О чем

Роберт Сапольски, профессор биологии Стэнфордского университета, ученый-исследователь и автор бестселлеров «Биология добра и зла», «Записки примата» и «Кто мы такие» рассказывает о главных кирпичиках биологического фундамента, на котором строится наше поведение — добрые, дурные, глупые и благородные поступки. Что общего у религиозного фанатика, преступника-маньяка и вредного профессора, который с наслаждением заваливает вас на экзамене? Так ли святы всем известные святые, или это строение мозга и гормональный профиль водрузили нимбы над их головами? И наконец: почему, когда мы болеем гриппом, так ломит суставы и совсем не хочется есть? Все эти разноплановые и увлекательные вопросы автор подробно рассматривает с научной точки зрения, проясняя их лаконично и с юмором и подкрепляя результатами масштабных исследований и экспериментов.

Об авторе

Известный нейробиолог, профессор Стэнфордского университета, научный сотрудник Института приматологии при Национальных музеях Кении. Активно выступает с лекциями для широкой аудитории, публикуется в таких изданиях, как National Geographic Magazine, Scientifi c American, The New York Times. Удостоен ряда высших наград, в том числе премии Карла Сагана за популяризацию науки. Помимо множества научных трудов Роберт Сапольски — автор нескольких научно-популярных книг, ставших мировыми бестселлерами. В их числе опубликованные на русском языке «Записки примата».

Genres: Science, Nonfiction, Psychology, Biology, Essays, Neuroscience, Health

322 pages, Unknown Binding

First published January 1, 1997

About the author

Robert Morris Sapolsky is an American neuroendocrinology researcher and author. He is currently a professor of biology, and professor of neurology and neurological sciences and, by courtesy, neurosurgery, at Stanford University. In addition, he is a research associate at the National Museums of Kenya.

Reviews

[Elizabeth Atwood · Rating 5 out of 5]

WOW! Dr. Sapolsky did not disappoint...he definitely has a spot on my top five favorite authors of all time. Not only are his stories eloquent and humorous, they are packed with facts and loads of interesting information on the brain, behavior, biology, environment, emotion, and his personal anecdotes sprinkled in here and there. And they can be understood by pretty much anyone who can read. Among my favorite essays in this book is "How big is yours", which explains the plight of individuals like myself (I suspect but have not confirmed) that suffered damage to their pre-frontal cortexes, especially before they were fully developed (not until age 21ish). The final chapter, "Circling the blanket for God", which I just read has me in a frenzied state I can't even begin to explain but to say that it has blown my mind. I'll try to explain a bit, just about the last page. He starts to talk about looking at his students over the years as science has advanced so rapidly and revealed the baffling complexity of the natural world. He says he sees them get uncomfortable about the philosophical implications of the idea that science and scientists will one day explain everything and in doing so take all the awe and wonder out of life, and to this Sapolsky responds, "I am not worried if scientists go and explain everything. This is for a very simple reason: an impala sprinting across the Savannah can be reduced to biomechanics, and Bach can be reduced to counterpoint, yet that does not decrease one iota our ability to shiver as we experience impalas leaping or Bach thundering. We can only gain and grow with each discovery that there is structure underlying the most accessible levels of things that fill us with awe.
But there is an even stronger reason why I am not afraid that scientists will inadvertently go and explain everything--it will never happen. While in certain realms, it may prove to be the case that science can explain ANYthing, it will never explain EVERYthing. As should be obvious after all these pages, as part of the scientific process, for every question answered, a dozen newer ones are generated. And they are usually far more puzzling, more challenging than than the prior problems. This was stated wonderfully in a quote by a geneticist named Haldane earlier in the century: "Life is not only stranger than we imagine, it is stranger than we can imagine". We will never have our flames extinguished by knowledge. The purpose of science is not to cure us of our sense of mystery and wonder, but to constantly reinvent and reinvigorate it." And that's just a page.
Wow!!! Another major bonus of this book is the art at the beginning of each essay. It's incredible and I can honestly say the next thing I do after I write this is going to be to Google Image almost every last one of them.
If you have a curious mind, this book is most certainly for you : )

[Derrick · Rating 5 out of 5]

I love Sapolsky for his dedication to his lane. He’s knowledgeable and inquisitive, and he avoids reductiveness completely. The best pop-science writer I know of.

[Нестор · Rating 5 out of 5]

Чудесная книга о влиянии нашего внутреннего на наше внешнее и наоборот.

Очень рекомендую тем, кто стремится вверх по жизненной и карьерной лестницам, а также тем, кто готовится к осознанному и управляемому спуску вниз. Будет чему поучиться и у автора, и у павианов, и у растений.

[Zachary · Rating 4 out of 5]

I want so badly to write like Sapolsky. Academic and casual. Fact-based and personally reflective. Smart and witty but not pompous.
He is a gem of a science communicator.

[Ragavendra Natarajan · Rating 3 out of 5]

Robert Sapolsky is hands down my favourite contemporary science writer. A literal (McArthur) genius (with looks to fit the part!) - he's erudite and writes with a dry sense of humour that I can't seem to get enough of.

The book is a collection of his essays from the late 90s. Sapolsky draws from his vast knowledge in fields as disparate as endocrinology, neurology, and anthropology to write some riveting essays. Some in particular stand out:
* The Young and the Reckless - on the arduous journey adolescent primates make from their birth group to a new one where they often start at the bottom of the dominance hierarchy (and the fate this entails in social primate societies)
* Poverty's Remains - on the phenomenon where most cadavers used in medical research in earlier times were from chronically stressed individuals in poverty and the unfortunate errors which resulted from this selection bias
* The Burden of Being Burden Free - on how a small population of "repressed" individuals are chronically stressed since they plan out every minutiae of their life in advance so that its stress free
* The Dangers of Fallen Souffles in the Developing World - on the singular stress response resulting from holding western style occupations (and the western style abundance it affords) in the chaotic non-western world where much is out of one's control
* Circling the Blanket for God - probably the best essay of the lot where Sapolsky builds on a prior theory on the connection between Schizophrenia and the origins of religion in humans. Thoroughly engaging!

[Maher Razouk · Rating 5 out of 5]

اضطراب الشخصية الفصامية
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بالنسبة لي ، حدث أحد أكثر التغييرات إثارة للاهتمام في الطريقة التي نرى بها الأفراد "الفصام" ، قبل بضعة عقود ، حيث بدأ فريق برئاسة الطبيب النفسي سيمور كيتي ، دراسات أظهرت عنصرًا وراثيًا في مزيج الأفكار المضطرب المعروف باسم انفصام الشخصية.

قام العلماء بفحص سجلات التبني المحفوظة بدقة في الدنمارك ، ومراجعة حالات الأطفال الذين تم تبنيهم من والديهم البيولوجيين في وقت مبكر جدًا من الحياة. إذا تم تبني طفل من والد مصاب بالفصام من قبل أبوين أصحاء ، فقد أراد كيتي أن يعرف ، هل كان الطفل معرضًا لخطر الإصابة بالفصام أكثر من المتوسط؟ على العكس من ذلك ، هل أي طفل من أبوين بيولوجيين أصحاء نشأ في منزل مع والد بالتبني مصاب بالفصام معرض لخطر متزايد للإصابة بالمرض؟

أظهر عمل كيتي أن الجينات في الواقع تزيد من احتمالية الإصابة بهذا الاضطراب. ولكن للحصول على هذه الإجابة ، كان على الأطباء إجراء مقابلات نفسية مكثفة مع مختلف الآباء البيولوجيين و آباء التبني. شمل هذا آلاف الأشخاص وسنوات من العمل. لم يدرس أحد من قبل أقارب مرضى الفصام بهذه الأعداد. وعلى طول الطريق لاحظ شخص ما شيئًا :

كان الكثير من هؤلاء الأشخاص غريب الأطوار. لم يكن هؤلاء الأقارب هم أنفسهم مصابين بالفصام - بل كانوا منفصلين اجتماعياً قليلاً ولديهم سلسلة من الأفكار التي يصعب أحياناً متابعتها عندما يتحدثون. لقد كان شيئًا معتدلًا ، وليس نوعًا من الأشياء التي قد تلاحظها عند التحدث إلى أفراد عائلة مرضى الفصام ، ولكنه توقف فجأة عندما تعامل مع الآلاف منهم.

كانوا يؤمنون بأشياء غريبة وكانوا مهتمين في الغالب بالتفكير السحري أو الخيالي. لا يوجد شيء مجنون بشكل يمكن تصديقه - ربما اهتمام كبير بالخيال العلمي والخيال ، أو إيمان راسخ ببعض الأشياء الضخمة أو علم التنجيم في العصر الجديد ، أو ربما اعتقاد أصولي حرفي في المعجزات التوراتية.

يحضر العديد من البالغين مؤتمرات Star Trek ، وتستشير زوجات الرؤساء المنجمين ولا تزال صناعة الأزياء تأخذها على محمل الجد ، ويعتقد آخرون أن الأرض قد تم إنشاؤها بالفعل في سبعة أيام. لكن الأطباء النفسيين اليوم يطلقون على مجموعة السمات هذه التي يراها كيتي اسم "اضطراب الشخصية الفصامية" ، وخاصة التركيز على التفكير السحري والأفكار غير المترابطة. على ما يبدو ، إذا كان لديك تركيبة جينية معينة ، فأنت عرضة لمرض انفصام الشخصية. إذا كان لديك نسخة أكثر اعتدالًا من هذا التركيب الجيني ، فقد تكون مستعدًا لوضع إيمان قوي بالأفكار السحرية التي لا تستند بشكل خاص إلى الحقائق.
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Robert Sapolsky
The Trouble With Testosterone
Translated By #Maher_Razouk

[Steve Loh · Rating 5 out of 5]

Some of the finest essays I've read. On par with David Foster Wallace with the difference that it is applied to biology.

[Pradyut Kumar · Rating 4 out of 5]

Through the journey of seventeen essays, Sapolsky takes you on a ride filled with scientific knowledge, curiosity, parallelism in religion, argument with fellow scientists and surprising personal vulnerability. Sapolsky delves into a diverse array of topics, ranging from behavior and endocrinology to theology, showcasing his philosophical reflections drawn from years of behavioral field studies. While the book, penned in the '90s, may exude a certain dated feel due to subsequent research advancements, the discourse within remains a testament to progressive and clear thinking. Sapolsky's exploration extends beyond scientific musings, providing deeply personal and beautiful accounts of his relationship with his late father. The essays not only offer insights into the intricacies of the natural world but also reveal the author's capacity for introspection and emotional connection.

The purpose of science is not to cure us of our sense of mystery and wonder, but to constantly reinvent and reinvigorate it.

[Nina · Rating 3 out of 5]

A light read with several intriguing short stories. He provides an interesting angle on life from a science perspective and mentions a couple of neuroscientific and behavioral phenomena that made me reflect on my own life. Impressive how much time he spent observing baboons and how much there is to learn from their behavior. And from the numerous cognitive pitfalls that surround us humans.
However, some of the stories are a bit unstructured and confuse and sometimes he goes off in a direction that makes it hard for the reader to follow his line of thought.

[John Stepper · Rating 5 out of 5]

At this point, I’ll read anything he writes (or watch/listen to whatever he says).

Scholarly, insightful, funny, humane/empathetic. Sapolsky is a genius with a heart.

[Joshua Waldman · Rating 5 out of 5]

“We will never have our flames extinguished by knowledge. The purpose of science is not to cure us of our sense of mystery and wonder, but to constantly reinvent and reinvigorate it.”

[Asaf Bartov · Rating 5 out of 5]

A fantastic book by one of the finest science communicators of our age, Prof. Robert M. Sapolsky of Stanford University.

Every essay is both erudite and fascinating, and the book is very readable, edifying, and enjoyable.

The title essay was especially interesting, as was the long reflection on religion and neurological disorders that (not accidentally) closes the collection.

From that last piece, I bring this delicious passage, about a young sixteenth-century Augustinian monk named Luder, whose writings have survived into our time:

====================

Anxious and neurasthenic, troubled with a relationship with a stern and demanding father, plagued with a variety of seemingly psychosomatic disorders, the young man had been caught one day in a frightening thunderstorm while walking alone, suffered a panic attack, and vowed to become a monk if he was allowed to survive.

True to his vow, he became a novitiate and threw himself into the rituals with a froth of repetition, self-doubt, and self-debasement. He described his dis-ease with the German word **Anfechtung**, which he defined as a sense of being utterly lost, a sense of anxious lack of mooring in every circumstance.

He carried out each monkish ritual to perfection, urging himself to ever greater concern for detail, ever greater consciousness of God throughout the act, ever greater contrition for his own inadequacies . . . and would invariably find fault and have to start over again. The first Mass that he led was an agony of anxiety, as he was filled with fears of leaving out details, of saying something blasphemous. His spare hours of silent meditation were filled with obsessive, heretical thoughts, for which he confessed at length day after day.

"I often repeated my confession and zealously performed my required penance," he wrote. "But I was always doubting and said, 'You did not perform that correctly. You were not contrite enough. You left that out of your confession.' "

At one point, his father confessor, no doubt exhausted with having to hear hours of confessions each day from Luder, endless reportings of evidence of failings and God's justifiable anger, finally turned to the young monk with an exasperated, shockingly modern insight—"It is not God who is angry with you. It is you who is angry with God."

History gives us a final hint of this monk's affliction. He washed and washed, and it was all futile. "The more you cleanse yourself, the dirtier you get," he summarized plaintively. The vein of obsessive-compulsive anxiety is readily apparent in this young man, who would come to be known by the more modern version of his name, Martin Luther.

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[Todd Martin · Rating 3 out of 5]

The Trouble with Testosterone is a collection of essays on the subject of biology by Robert M. Sapolsky a professor at Stanford University. More specifically Sapolsky examines some of the ways in which our biology influences behavior … topics such as: the influence of testosterone on aggression, the onset of puberty and an animal’s position in the social hierarchy, the evolutionary advantages of risk taking, the effects of stress on hormone concentrations in the body, the effects of a Westernized diet on baboons evolved for foraging (not surprisingly, they mirror those of humans), and the role of mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and obsessive compulsive disorder in the development of religion.

Sapolsky is a good writer and the essays are interesting, although I thought he overstated the validity of several psychological hypotheses … for example: the five stages of grief (which are far from universal), the theories of Sigmund Freud (which have been almost entirely discredited), the causes of effects of depression and others. I suspect this is what happens when a person ventures too far afield from their area of expertise.

[Raluca Cobzaru · Rating 5 out of 5]

Cartea este o colecție de eseuri despre biologia comportamentală, iar cel mai consistent este despre analiza credințelor religioase din perspectivă psihologică și neurologică.
Autorul este profesor de biologie și neurologie la Universitatea Stanford și face muncă de cercetare despre fiziologia stresului, abordând numeroase teme de “ atacat” în arena dezbaterilor morale.
Nu formulează concluzii de certitudine, dar expune motivat rezultatele muncii sale de cercetare referitoare la biologia condiției umane, despre care afirmă că rămâne lipsită de sens în afara contextului social.

[Miri Niedrauer · Rating 2 out of 5]

Most of the essays in this book represent barely-coherent ramblings with occasionally mildly interesting facts about biology and human/animal tendencies. Although a scientist by profession, his writing does not come off scientifically-based at all. Additionally, it is nearly impossible to even deduce what subject the author is rambling about for much of the beginning of each chapter, leading to a difficult and confusing read.

[Gail Kennon · Rating 2 out of 5]

mostly enjoyable essays connecting human behaviour with that of our non-human kin. unsure why he wrote extremely long, reductionist essay at end linking religion to mental pathologies. the latter seemed much more a product of personal beliefs than of scientific knowledge.

[Joe · Rating 4 out of 5]

Fantastic writing and believable science-based articles about human physiology and about animals used to infer human physiology.

[sophia bokovikova · Rating 5 out of 5]

I was between 4-5 stars (bc I liked some essays a lot more than others) but there were so many nuggets of wisdom that it felt wrong not to give it a 5. I appreciate how nuanced/level-headed Sapolsky’s views and writing feel and I learned a lot from this book. A major theme of it was nature vs. nurture and how much of our traits/being can be explained by or blamed on our biology, pathology, etc. He included a lot of primate work, evolutionary biology, sociology, neuropsychiatry, human development, etc., exploring universal human phenomena and quirks in a smart and thoughtful way. The last essay (on religion, OCD, and schizotypal personality) was probably my favorite (best for last I suppose).

Quotes I liked:
- main idea: “What does it mean that there are biological constraints to how we move through our life histories, to how we go about some of our most personal junctures…”
- “To the extent that we think of ‘natural’ as effortless, unplanned, unaffected, and simple, it is rarely the nature of our bodies or our behaviors to be natural.”
- “… This was stated wonderfully in a quote by a geneticist named Haldane earlier in the century: ‘Life is not only stranger than we imagine, it is stranger than we can imagine.’ We will never have our flames extinguished by knowledge. The purpose of science is not to cure us of our sense of mystery and wonder, but to constantly reinvent and reinvigorate it.”

Interesting things
- Adaptive timing mechanisms (ex: puberty being initiated earlier in female rats exposed to male urine or the presence of a male rat; puberty delayed in female mice exposed to a large number of adult females; puberty in human females being initiated earlier in girls from homes with conflict/strained parental relationships vs. it being the result of early maternal onset of puberty itself causing increased onset for sexual activity and instability of the home)
- Niche personality similarities in people with a specific type of epilepsy (hypergraphia, demeanor, religious interest, etc.)
- Firing squads evolving as an accommodation guilt (allowed each participant of the firing squad with a logical distortion); ideas of “fractional guilt” and “fractional innocence”

[Sylvia So · Rating 3 out of 5]

As someone with no background in science whatsoever, I found this book at times difficult to read. There were essays that were fantastic, and others that were written a bit too pompously for my liking. I like when things are accessible, and at times this didn't feel so. I enjoyed reading something outside my comfort zone for once but it's not a book I would recommend to others like myself.

[Kirina van der Bijl · Rating 4 out of 5]

I just love learning about behaviour. And I love everything about Sapolsky's writing style. There were some repeated stories that also appeared in his other books so I skimmed over those. But, there was less repetition than I expected.

[Eduardow · Rating 5 out of 5]

Outstanding work. Sapolsky is not only an amazing academic, but a funny and skillful writer. He makes what some would call “boring science” deeply interesting. Maybe because he just asks the right questions. And no, you don’t need to be a scientist or biologist to enjoy the book

;) DDS

[Loredana Agavriloaei · Rating 5 out of 5]

Wonderful informations in his amusing way of story telling

[Akanksha Singh · Rating 4 out of 5]

Provides a lot of food for thought

[Simon Tudge · Rating 4 out of 5]

It's a collection of essays on behavioural biology, so kind of up my street. 17 in all, and each is a 10-15 minute read, can be dipped into although I read cover to cover :).

Sapolsky is one of the all time great science writers in my opinion. A couple of the essays didn't quite resonate with me, a couple were sort of old news and a couple were mind blowing. Overall recommend, although I would probably start with the book "behave" from the author, as that has a more coherent structure. Or read a couple of these essays, particularly "the trouble with testosterone" and the final one on religion.

[Dillon Shipley · Rating 5 out of 5]

we all just apes fr

[Sayeeda Pearl · Rating 4 out of 5]

Author:Robert Sapolsky, renowned neruroendocrninolgist/ anthropologist
Genere :Science non- fiction
Collection of interesting scientific essays written with the insight of a learned behavioural biologist,explaining the fine inter play between the nut and bolts of neurochemistry,genetics and environment in moulding the behaviour which makes one a healthy individual or otherwise with our potential and constraints.
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In Measures of life we get a glimpse how emergence of firing squads and injecting lethal doses for executions evolved over periods of time,in a way to accommodate the perception of guilt or reduce the guilt conscience by subtle cognitive games.
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In solace of pattern, he takes us through the DABDA of mourning, an universal predictability of human nature.
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On the title topic,association between the hormone testosterone and it’s causative role on aggressive behaviour and violence is discussed.The culprit is not the hormone per se but the predisposition to aggressiveness which might get further aggravated by testosterone.
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Poverty Remains takes us to the troubled reality of how in the past, the anatomists and physicians depended on the cadavers of the poor for learning purposes and accounts of grave diggers during that era is nothing short of horror. Even today we witness how socioeconomic inequity permeates every aspect of health care system.
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Circling the blanket for God is a topic that would definitely offend a section of society as the it discusses few psychological traits that are commonly observed in shaman, God men and religious preachers.The observation about the obsessive compulsive behaviour behind some rigorous religious rituals and the how religion provide a safe hiding shelter for those with OCD might not please the faithful.
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The rest of the topics in this book definitely are interesting and informative.Time and space constraints doesn’t permit me for a detailed review.

The Author concludes his observations and writing saying that “Science could explain anything,but it will never explain everything, for every question answered, a dozen new one are generated.”
As Haldane quoted
“The purpose of Science is not to cure us of our sense of mystery and wonder,but to constantly reinvent and reinvigorate it.”

[Varad Patankar · Rating 4 out of 5]

I chanced to come across Robert Sapolsky as I randomly saw his Stanford University Behavioral Biology lectures on YouTube. His ability to explain complex biological concepts with remarkable lucidity impressed me. Not being a fan of consuming information via videos, I decided to search for his books. The title of this book intrigued me, and I started reading it.

Robert Sapolsky has a unique style of writing. His sentences tend to become long-winded at times, but his quirky sense of humor and sarcasm prod you along to keep reading. Basic knowledge about human biology and curiosity are enough to get you through the book unscathed by boredom or frustration.

The essays discuss interesting concepts such as adolescence, junk food, mental disorders & even religion. There are bound to be instances when you shall feel personally attacked when Sapolsky talks about our behavioral patterns and their implications. One realizes that mental health is continuum and none of us out here are really sane. A poignant line from his book goes as,

“Being healthy really consists of having the same disease as everyone else.”

Not fearing any political incorrectness Sapolsky’s words might occasionally offend the weak hearted amongst us. But overall, the book is an entertaining read.

[Jenny Preston · Rating 3 out of 5]

I found this collection of essays about the world and the human experience to be mostly interesting, if slightly disjointed. It is a collection - there isn't one unifying thought that ties the whole book together. The writing style is only ok due to some jumpiness and the other's clearly high opinion of himself. But mixed into that I found some fascinating stories, such as the culture of the apes he studied in South Africa and how they relate to human culture.

My worldview is about as opposite as possible from the author, but I enjoy reading books like that on occasion for the mental exercise. The author is a self-declared atheist, evolutionist scientist. He even goes so far as to theorize religion is based on mental illnesses, specifically "schizotypal" (defined as having some tendencies characteristic of schizophrenia but not the full blown disease) and OCD. And yet, I caught on at least 2 occasions where he, possibly subconsciously, refers to a higher plan or power in the universe.

Am I glad I read it? For the 50c I spent at a book sale, yes. Will I read it again? Highly unlikely.

[Lance Hartland · Rating 2 out of 5]

I was hoping this book would be more like a compendium of research about testosterone. Unfortunately, there is only 10 pages or less dedicated to that subject. I guess I was misled by the title, which is purely my fault for thinking that one word in a title would imply the thesis for the book. The book had great research on a wide variety of topics, but minimal material on the subject that originally attracted to me to this book. Since my expectations weren't met, and considering the disinterest I battled while reading this book, I give it two stars. Avoid the book if you think you'll learn much about testosterone, read the book if you are interested in the connections between obsessive compulsive disorder and religion or hypothesis as to why male baboons migrate to different baboon tribes and why female baboons don't. I think this book appeals to a very small sect of people, mainly scientists who specialize in anthropology, primatology, or psychiatry.

[Kaitlyn · Rating 3 out of 5]

A thought-provoking read; it would be good to have strong evidence to back up the links that he makes, particularly when making a jump from animal to human behavior based simply on similar neurobiology. Additionally, it seems that much of his assumptions are largely rooted in Western constructions of normality, with little consideration for non-Western behaviors. Ultimately, I found this book to contain much to make me think, and little to make me believe, despite the given facts. Perhaps that is the point, after all--not to take everything at face value, and to instead consider all of the possibilities.