Killing for Coal: America's Deadliest Labor War

by Thomas G. Andrews

On a spring morning in 1914, in the stark foothills of southern Colorado, members of the United Mine Workers of America clashed with guards employed by the Rockefeller family, and a state militia beholden to Colorado’s industrial barons. When the dust settled, nineteen men, women, and children among the miners’ families lay dead. The strikers had killed at least thirty men, destroyed six mines, and laid waste to two company towns.

Killing for Coal offers a bold and original perspective on the 1914 Ludlow Massacre and the “Great Coalfield War.” In a sweeping story of transformation that begins in the coal beds and culminates with the deadliest strike in American history, Thomas Andrews illuminates the causes and consequences of the militancy that erupted in colliers’ strikes over the course of nearly half a century. He reveals a complex world shaped by the connected forces of land, labor, corporate industrialization, and workers’ resistance.

Brilliantly conceived and written, this book takes the organic world as its starting point. The resulting elucidation of the coalfield wars goes far beyond traditional labor history. Considering issues of social and environmental justice in the context of an economy dependent on fossil fuel, Andrews makes a powerful case for rethinking the relationships that unite and divide workers, consumers, capitalists, and the natural world.

(20090215)

Genres: History, Nonfiction, American History, Labor, Grad School, Historical, Politics

386 pages, Hardcover

First published October 1, 2008

About the author

Thomas G. Andrews specializes in the social and environmental history of the Rocky Mountain West. The recipient of grants from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, The Huntington Library, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Council of Learned Societies, and other organizations, he has authored prize-winning articles on assimilation and native resistance in federal day schools for Native American children; intercultural conflict and cooperation between Hispanos and Native Americans on the southern Colorado frontier; and the erasure of labor from Colorado’s leisure landscapes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Reviews

[Stefania Dzhanamova · Rating 5 out of 5]

History

The Ludlow Massacre was the culmination of the UMWA Strike in Colorado (September 1913 - December 1914), which was pronounced the deadliest labor war in the history of the United States, claiming about 200 victims over the course of 18 months.

Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, owned by the Rockefellers, was one of the biggest in the West. John Rockefeller was notoriously anti-union, and reacted to the strike by evicting the miners from their company lodgings and hiring guards, who molested the workers by shooting into their temporary homes, tents.

On April 20th, 1914 the company’s guards attacked a group of unarmed strikers causing the deaths of 26 people, 11 children and 2 women among them. The news of this atrocity spread through Colorado Fuel and Iron like fire, and on 22nd of April 1914 the whole working force of the company, armed and indignant, revolted.

After ten days of battle and at least 50 dead, President Woodrow Wilson finally sent in the National Guard, which disarmed the both sides.


Dejavu

The Strike of 1913-1914 successfully – due to being outrageously sanguinary – drew the public’s attention to the plight of the miners and their families, but it was neither a single occurrence of miner revolting.

The living conditions of the mine workers disturbingly resemble those of the slaves in the rural South: intolerably long workday, hard physical work, low salaries, no opportunity to change their workplaces.

In “Killing for Coal” Thomas G. Andrews has included the reminiscence of an African American miner, Alfred Owens(p.171):

Owens recalled how he and his white partner would josh each other at day’s end. “When we’d come out I’d look at him and his face would be all dirty, we didn’t see noth- ing but white, with his teeth, and I’d laugh at him. . . . He’d say, what are [you] laughing at? I’d say, you’re so black. He’d say, well, what do you think about yourself ?”

This quote bears a symbolical meaning. Not only are all the workers black-faced, they are all equally “black” in the eyes of the company owners. They are nothing more than slaves.

The employment of children in the mines makes the resemblance to slavery even more striking. Their cheap labor was used for all sorts and purposes. They were drivers,breakers, miners. Emaciated and diseased, they struggled alongside their parents to earn a bare subsistence wage.

A major reason for the employees’ discontent was the lack of safety measures in the mines. Only in 1913 accidents took a heavy toll of human life (about 100 workers).

The mistake of the 19th century railroad building, described profoundly in Richard White’s “Railroaded”, repeated itself. First, there was another boom of Chinese and Japanese employment (aka. exploitation), which costed a lot of American miners their workplaces. Second, the greedy company owners completely disregarded the safety measures, which could have spared hundreds of lives, and when an incident occurred, John Rockefeller – like all the other mining and railroad magnates – was “deeply sorry”.

In my opinion, all of the above justifies the coal miners’ strike.


Of Mice and Mules and Men

Thomas G. Andrews shows the reader who the miner was. He shows how he toils and laughs, and fights for his rights.

“Killing for Coal” is an interestingly written account of the reasons and consequences of the Ludlow Massacre. Andrews’ work is interspersed with articulate photographs, and stories from the workers the author has interviewed.

Ludlow Massacre is an event to remember, and “Killing for Coal” is a book to read because it represents the slavery of today and the struggle of the whole laboring class for survival, which aren’t yet over in our world.

[William Fuller · Rating 3 out of 5]

“Pick! Pick! Pick!
In the tunnel's endless gloom
And every blow of our strong right arm
But helps to carve our tomb.”

Killing for Coal provides what may be a truly unique look at, as the title goes on to say, “America's deadliest labor war,” which took place in the Colorado coal mining camps and towns in 1914. What makes Andrews' slice of U.S. history unique? The author does not limit himself to recounting the miners' strikes, the beatings, the shootings, and the incineration of women and children hiding from National Guard bullets but rather devotes the majority of his pages to examining the numerous factors setting the stage for the “war.”

The event itself has been discussed by other historians, writers, and composers. As Andrews notes, “The arch-muckraker Upton Sinclair wrote two novels about the coalfield wars. In 1946 the folksinger Woody Guthrie released his tragic lament 'The Ludlow Massacre,' which in turn inspired the people's historian Howard Zinn to write a master's thesis and several book chapters about the conflict.” What Killing for Coal brings to the table is a better understanding of how the conflict came to be, how sociological, cultural, and economic factors came into play.

Is the event itself sufficiently significant to warrant a reader's time on this 291 page book (not counting the Notes and Acknowledgments sections)? Perhaps one should spend the time reading about the United States' invasion of Mexico and occupation of Veracruz, which occupied the same timeframe, instead? After all, unless one is particularly interested in pre-WW I Colorado state history, what significance do those long-ago coalfield strikes have? As Andrews points out, “[S]ix mines, Forbes camp, and another company town lay in ruins. Upwards of thirty people had lost their lives in the Ten Days' War, the deadliest, most destructive uprising by American workers since ... the Civil War.” I admit that the time I spent in Colorado made many place names more significant than they would otherwise have been and the number of times that I passed by the CF&I steel mill in Pueblo made the actions of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company more immediately meaningful for me; still, the history that Andrews treats has significance beyond the state borders. There is something in his book for those interested in sociology, U.S. labor movement history, social and environmental impacts of extraction industries, political power and influence, and the failure of attempted capitalistic control measures over workers. Thinking that Killing for Coal is relevant only to Colorado history would be a mistake.

One thing that I find particularly interesting is that Andrews explains the true rationale behind the creation of company towns and shows how such paternalistic beneficence was actually a means of controlling miners and of forestalling unionization. Similarly, creation of company stores and the use of scrip to pay miners created an economic peonage system from which escape was a daunting challenge. Having miners live in such company towns, also known as “closed camps,” made the task of keeping union organizers away much easier for the companies, which looked upon the United Mine Workers of America as a distinctly unsavory—or subversive—organization whose pro-worker orientation was to be avoided by all means at their disposal.

In brief, I found the content of Killing for Coal to be informative and Andrews' analysis of the sociological factors leading up to the coalfield strikes and violence to be a novel approach to the topic. Unfortunately, I also found his manner of expressing this content to approach pedantry at times. Ideas are repeated rather frequently as though the writer is hoping to expand his word count before tackling the next point. The tone of the composition, what might be termed the “voice” of the book, approaches the dry side, lacking inspiration. It simply lacks the verve that should be urging the reader to forge ahead to see what discoveries and new knowledge await in the next sentence or paragraph or chapter. Grammatically and syntactically, the writing is flawless; it's just a bit challenging to forge through at times.

Despite what I feel is sometimes a lackluster presentation, the book is well worth the time and effort to read if one has any concern or interest at all in the history of labor unrest, in the struggle of individual workers versus corporate control, and in the sociological and economic factors underlying such conflict. However, if a reader needs external motivation to forge ahead through the text, putting “Songs of the Wobblies” on the turntable may be a good idea, or at least pop over to You Tube to hear the “Colorado Strike Song” which dates from the 1914 strikes and is quoted in the book. That should get the blood stirring!

[Phil · Rating 4 out of 5]

really liked it. very accessible for non-academic audience—Andrews is a great writer—but it’s also an impressive updating of a couple of historiographical lineages (Cronon’s environmental history and Gutman’s application of EP Thompson to the US context, which led to a culture-driven understanding of class consciousness). Only a few minor quibbles.

[Rob Prince · Rating 5 out of 5]

now we - or at least they- kill for oil... in the past (and actually it continues) we killed for coal. the state in which i live has a rather unknown history of literal armed struggle between this state's miners, many of whom were immigrants, and the u.s. military. it happened it telluride, in the northern fields east of boulder (around louisville) and of course at ludlow. `killing for coal' gives a sense of how, when it comes to producing the energy necessary for industrialization and our modern fetus for `things'...that the process was as ruthless in the past as it is today...

cheers, rob p.

[Kelli Peters · Rating 3 out of 5]

Thomas Andrews’ work Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War presents a detailed history of the fighting and tensions between coal miners and employers in southern Colorado. Andrews begins his work with a description of the “Ludlow Massacre” or “Ludlow Battle” that took place on April 20, 1914. Throughout the rest of his work, Andrews explains why both of these nomenclatures do not properly describe the events that happened in Ludlow. Andrews provides immense details about the life of coal miners in southern Colorado and the events that contributed to a large labor strike that culminated in a violent outbreak at the Ludlow tent community.

[Frank · Rating 2 out of 5]

It starts out strong and it’s thoroughly researched, but this book is about 90 percent backstory and 10 percent main event. My patience was wearing thin by the time I finally got to the content that’s advertised on the cover, and by then I was fatigued with repetition and minutiae. I’m sure this book has academic value, but it’s not what it's marketed as, and I can’t help but to think there must be other sources that offer more thematic and complete explanations of the Ludlow conflict and the Colorado coalfield war.

[Lashonda Slaughter Wilson · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book takes a look at the uprising of coal miners and how they... after the destruction of a tent village...go on a rampage because of the deaths of women and children... its interesting, compelling, and easy to understand why these men resorted to the lengths they did after years of attempting to get some sort of boost in pay while making the rest of the world work in the middle of a period where everyone was dependent on coal.

[John E · Rating 5 out of 5]

Outstanding book! The best history book I've read in many years (and I read a lot of history). If you are interested in labor history, environmental history, the history of migration, Western American history, business history, or just a great read, this is well worth your time. No wonder it won so many prizes when published.

[Millie · Rating 5 out of 5]

I was partial to this book even before I read it. The author is the son of a college friend. The book is his history dissertation published by Harvard University Press--a very special recognition. While coal mining in southern Colorado is not my first topic of interest, Andrews made this study readable, insightful, and compelling.

[Alison · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is a really well written and fascinating look at coal mining in Colorado. I don't love labor or environmental history (Andrews focus) but the book was so well written and researched that it read like a social history and was really enjoyable.

[The Vestiges · Rating 5 out of 5]

Fascinating analysis of the influence of coal on the development of the American West and painful labor strife which accompanied it.

[Samuel · Rating 3 out of 5]

KILLING FOR COAL is a labor history of miners in the southern coalfields of Colorado during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. It may be considered an environmental history because it addresses (among the social, political, and cultural dimensions of labor relations between miners and capitalists) the natural and ecological dimensions and setting of the region’s history. Andrews introduces the term “workscape” that “treats people as laboring beings who have changed and been changed in turn by a natural world that remains always under construction” (125). The boundaries between nature and culture melt away and form a blurry whole, which gives place to his assertion that: “Great industrialists like the Rockefellers, soldiers like W. E. Lane, and strike leaders like Louis Tikas are not the only characters in this story. Mules and molten steel, arid climates and Irish potato plots, explosive gases and, most of all, a humble rock that burns all have roles to play. Together they tell the story of how half a century of contentious interactions between workers, capitalists, and nature set the stage for ten days of class warfare that brought southern Colorado to the brink of revolution” (19).

The danger of coalfields is compared to deep sea diving and even space exploration as it can often be dark, disorienting, and dangerous. The coal itself is a powder keg located in gaseous subterranean fires that just need a ignition spark from a dropped lamp or a carelessly struck match to ignite. Andrews does point out an important paradoxical situation of coal mining. The author also talks about how animals—mice and mules in particular—were vital to Colorado coal mining. He also demonstrates the paradoxical fact that even as coal extraction moved the national economy to a fossilized (mineral economy), it relied heavily on human brawn and organic energy supplies to extract it (96). This continued throughout the first third of the twentieth century in America until mechanization techniques lessoned the dependence on human labor and then finally as coal extraction largely became cheaper to do overseas by the final two decades of the twentieth century. Thus the transition phase is more nuanced here than elsewhere in historical accounts. Hence the following well-articulated point: “Industrialization” too often reduces the complexity of its parts emphasizing the technological. Rather it is “the interconnected social, political, economic, and environmental changes that we too casually subsume under the catchall phrase “industrialization’” (18).

As labor unions demanded the right to unionize and claim rights to better working conditions—better pay and safer conditions in particular—company owners were adamant about saving costs and maintaining power. (Very importantly, timbering—or the building of wooden supports into the mining tunnels was considered “dead work” and went unpaid—pay was based on tonnage of coal extracted; this resulted in many unsafe conditions that miners justifiably felt was unfair) (139). In the end, a deadly strike ensued that required the Colorado National Guard and later federal troops to restore order. The role of women was significant both in the striking and the breaking of the strike—a thousand-woman march on Denver’s Capitol building precipitated the Governor’s call to President Wilson to send federal troops. Problems would persist, but Ludlow massacre April 20, 1914— in which 18 strikers were killed including women and children—and the retaliation by strikers known as the 10 Days War would mark the high point of bloody confrontations in the coal labor movement.The Ludlow-as-battle vs. Ludlow-as-massacre narratives have competed for salience in the historical review of the Great Colorado Coalfield War from 1913-1914 (in which there were at least 75 and maybe 100 casualties).

In the end, however, Andrews argues that: “To fully understand the Great Coalfield War and its significance, we need to move beyond partial memories and polarizing stories. The perpetuation of the Ludlow-as-massacre story distorts our ability to understand the tumultuous relationship between mineworkers, mine operators, and the state.” In reality, the strikers took more lives of the militia than vice versa—they were not a passive bunch acted upon but active agents. They were also a diverse group of immigrants. “Such interpretations seem to underscore a key premise of twentieth-century politics: that working class people can best achieve equality, fairness, and justice not through collective uprisings from below, but rather through the intervention of national unions, the Democratic Party, and the federal government” (15). Andrews does a decent job of giving a fair account of this difficult history that has been turned to myth by many on both sides of the labor versus capital dispute. While I appreciate the effort and work of making this an environmental history, I think it only offers a setting for rather than a convincing cause of the Ludlow Massacre and the Great Coalfield War. In other words, this is a labor history before an environmental history. Nothing wrong with a little overlap and interdisciplinarity though; I'll drink to that!

[Jessica · Rating 5 out of 5]

I knew little about the history of Colorado or of coal mining before I came to Thomas Andrews' book--and yet I'm so happy I did. This is a richly researched and beautifully written book about the evolution of Colorado's coal mining industry--from the first years in which William Jackson Palmer, on assignment for the Kansas Pacific Railroad, began to learn about and appreciate the coal strata of the Colorado landscape, to the 1920s and the decline of protests for a fairer and unionized support system for coal miners (aka colliers). Andrews blends labor history, environmental history, and social history together to show us not just what coal did to develop the Colorado landscape and economy, but how central coal was to every aspect of economic and social life that developed over the ensuing forty years. He takes great care to get into the work of coal-mining--the forms of masculinized, specialized, and interethnicized labor that took place in the mines themselves, which were then compounded into a special form of solidarity in the residential and social spaces surrounding those towns. One of the inadvertent outcomes of the coal owners' deveopment of company towns--what Andrews calls "welfare paternalism"--was that in hiring migrants from across cultural, ethnic, religious and racial groups, and in putting those migrants together in a highly specialized and highly dangerous form of employment, what emerged was a form of class consciousness and solidarity that provide to require a real reckoning with the mine managers and owners. These forms of solidarity were also rooted in the intimate kinds of knowledge that miners gleaned from the earth itself; Andrews calls these spaces "workscapes," spaces that while first created to produce commodities exceed the boundaries of pure economy and become highly respected AND extractive of the environment itself.

The particular significance of this text within the realm of rural studies is multiple--it sheds light on landscape-rooted local economies, the particular challenges of physical labor that in turn produce solidarities among workers, the dependency on physical labor in an era where industrialization was emerging, and the forms of community and belonging--and resistance--that emerge within spaces in which ownership, freedom of movement, and enfranchisement all become contested in the course of an economy's development. HIGHLY recommend.

[fire_on_the_mountain · Rating 5 out of 5]

A truly detailed, multi-textured, and elegant portrayal of all the diverse and various threads that fueled the Ten Days War of the Colorado coalfields. You probably don't know what that is. I didn't either, but I have a much deeper appreciation for the wider context beyond the events than I otherwise would have. This is definitely worth the time of anyone studying labor strife, social change through migration, and the development of western American society.

I am also struck by one quote in particular, that I think sums up our current situation: “Whether today’s energy wars take place in corporate boardrooms or legislative chambers, in Nigeria or Venezuela, Bolivia or Iraq, and whether they take their toll on oil workers or on the retreating Arctic ice, they take place largely out of sight, if not always out of mind for most inhabitants of the developed world. The story of the Colorado coalfield wars should prompt us to ask more probing questions about our connection with these conflicts and our responsibility for the suffering and damage they are causing." So true, and whether we be greens, drillers, or indifferent consumers, we can't hope to avoid that responsibility.

[Chelsea Henry · Rating 3 out of 5]

This was the book of the week for grad school. This one was okay, I would not recommend this the average reader. This is more of an academic read, unless you are just into American history. I would only tell scholars who are needing sources on the subject of coal this book.

The book tells the history of coal mining in Colorado and the Ludlow Massacre. This book is very detailed and very thorough. I'm not sure why I did not like this book as much as others we have read, it may be the authors writing style, or that the books really gets repetitive in the middle or the fact that he love to use the phrase "vernacular landscape". It was just okay, I wish it focused more on the Ludlow Massacre instead of the history of mining in Colorado.

The book starts out really well telling of the battle being found in Ludlow and then it sort of fizzles out into the history of Colorado mining and picks up in the last chapter when it backs to Ludlow and the aftermath of the massacre. It was an okay book, I am smarter for reading it and know a part of American/Colorado most people don't know but it is not a book I will ever read again.

[Amber · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book is difficult to review. The book is really about the coal industry in Colorado (and adjacent Mountain West states), how the coal was formed, how the industry started, the types of workers and various unionization efforts throughout those years of intensive labor. The entirety of the 10 days war takes about 10 pages and given the significant gaps in the historical record, he's done a good job.

However, getting to that specific strike takes over 200 pages. He has created an interesting holistic view of the entire system, but I really couldn't understand how the topics were supposed to have been woven together. Yes, the common thread was the coal industry, but well, it was like there were a hundred ideas on a dart board and he added them in to the book in the order with which the darts hit the subject.

Despite my confusion, he wrote so well that it was understanding and fascinating so 4 stars.

[Kathy · Rating 4 out of 5]

Reading this book gave me a new insight into the developmental history of industrialized Colorado. The combination of railroads and William Jackson Palmers influence on the development of the coal empires was new to me. It also gave me a new perspective on the United Mine Workers.
The book is packed with information which makes reading a slow, thoughtful process. It is wrth the time to study it for the information gained. It is somewhat depressing to realize that the employer/employee struggles, the media misinformation, the fight against collective bargaining, the struggle for fossil fuel dominance has not changed much in the past 100 years.
I liked Andrews approach of not focusing on the Ludlow Massacre, but making the reader aware of the conditions that led up to that incident and the 10 Days War that followed.

[Chris · Rating 5 out of 5]

This one just won the Bancroft (awarded by the Organization of American Historians for best book) and Carson (awarded by the Americans Society for Environmental History for best book) prizes. It also happens to be authored by a friend of mine from grad school. He sat across the table from me in my first-ever grad seminar, and by the time he'd made his third comment I was beginning to wonder if I'd chosen the wrong career. He was *that* intimidatingly smart. Then at the end of class, he asked if anyone wanted to walk over to the Terrace for a beer. As it turns out, it's possible to be crazy smart and a likable, easy-going person. The book, as you might expect, is brilliant--but it's also beautifully written. I highly recommend it.

[Donna Herrick · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is by far one of the besty books that I have ever read, it makes me want to redefine my rating system. This is a history of the events called the "Ludlow Massacre", but it is much more. Andrews gives a great view of the coal mining industry, its place in society, how mining came to be in Colorado, and the conditions that the miners worked and lived in. I wish I had this as an e-book so that I could go to the references over and over again.

I find many parallels between
American society now and 100 years ago in the concentration of wealth. My sense is that where as in the 1910s that capitalists took a paternalistic attitude towards workers, now American workers are viewed as irrelevant.

Read this book.

[Deborah Méndez-wilson · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is a must read for anyone who wants a comprehensive, scholarly look at the Ludlow Massacre, one of the saddest chapters of Colorado history. Professor Andrews is a fine researcher and writer, who writes in a very authoritative, journalistic style. I like that he admits that he knew nothing about Ludlow while growing up in Denver, which can seem light years away from southern Colorado, where I grew up. I, on the other hand, heard about Ludlow when I was just a little girl. My grandfather, a coal miner, told me about the incident, and he always spoke about it in a hushed, reverent tone. Reading Andrews' book was enlightening for me. My family has lived in Colorado for generations, but I learned so much about my state's history just by reading this book.

[Gage Hoefer · Rating 4 out of 5]

I read this based on the recommendation from a friend of mine who studies history, particularly Midwestern labor history- I'm quite glad I did. This is a great account of the Colorado Coalfield War- it covers the events leading up to the Ludlow Massacre and the following 10 day war, the geological and chemical processes that create coal, the various dangers miners faced working colliers- in short, it's a comprehensive look at the material conditions which lead to the deadliest labor dispute in the US post-Civil War.

[Andrea · Rating 3 out of 5]

I actually got to do a "real" review of this one. See here, if you like:
http://www.hcn.org/issues/41.4/an-und...

What I didn't have room to say in the review is that the book is written by an academic, and boy can his lingo be annoying. If you can get past his insistence on using terms like "workspace" and "vernacular landscape," it's a fascinating read.

[Diana Reyes · Rating 5 out of 5]

"Killing for Coal" by Thomas G. Andrews writes a well written book on the retelling of the Ludlow Massacre. This book has a magical way to intrigue a read and captivate them. It provides valuable information on the event. This book is a good way to learn every detail and aspect of the Ludlow attack. It's a can't miss for readers interested in the coal history.

[Daniel · Rating 4 out of 5]

A great book on a little known "battle" between Colorado mine workers, backed by their union, and coal companies, backed by the National Guard. Andrews presented a narrative that flowed easily as he broke down the reasons for the fight between the union workers and the coal companies. It was a compelling story and one I found more interesting than I originally thought.

[Ankit Goyal · Rating 4 out of 5]

Very nice glimpse into the industrial age for those of us who have grown in an information age and perhaps are unable to identify with the completely transformational nature of that age . Themes of human greed and apathy run through out the book , reminiscent of much of the writings on modern capitalism .

[Robert Rich · Rating 5 out of 5]

Comprehensive look at coal mining in Colorado

Using the labor disputes which spilled over into outright battle, this readable history of the southern Colorado coal field wars covers a wide range of topics, including how mining was done, why Development happened as it did, and the Economic and social lives of the migrant population. Interesting window into these areas and more.

[Jason S · Rating 4 out of 5]

Much more ambitious than a history of the Ludlow massacres in Colorado, this book combines labor and environmental history to do a commodity history of coal in southern Colorado. A very interesting and effective work.

[Katie · Rating 2 out of 5]

Nice prose for a very factual book, sometimes too fact heavy though. It made it hard to read. I wish the events reached a better climax, but I guess that's history for you.

[Paul · Rating 1 out of 5]

Written by an academic, and it shows. I made a couple of attempts but couldn't wade through the prose. Pity, an important piece of history.

[Peter · Rating 4 out of 5]

Interesting blend of environmental and labor history.