Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis: A Text for Biologists, Materials Scientists, and Geologists

by Joseph Goldstein, Dale E. Newbury, Patrick Echlin

1. Introduction.- 1.1. Evolution of the Scanning Electron Microscope.- 1.2. Evolution of the Electron Probe Microanalyzer.- 1.3. Outline of This Book.- 2. Electron Optics.- 2.1. Electron Guns.- 2.1.1. Thermionic Emission.- 2.1.2. Tungsten Cathode.- 2.1.3. The Lanthanum Hexaboride (LaB6) Cathode.- 2.1.4. Field Emission Gun.- 2.2. Electron Lenses.- 2.2.1. General Properties of Magnetic Lenses.- 2.2.2. Production of Minimum Spot Size.- 2.2.3. Aberrations in the Electron Optical Column.- 2.3. Electron Probe Diameter, dp, vs. Electron Probe Current i.- 2.3.1. Calculation of dmin and imax.- 2.3.2. Measurement of Microscope Parameters (dp, i, ?).- 2.3.3. High-Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy.- 3. Electron-Beam-Specimen Interactions.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Scattering.- 3.2.1. Elastic Scattering.- 3.2.2. Inelastic Scattering.- 3.3. Interaction Volume.- 3.3.1. Experimental Evidence.- 3.3.2. Monte Carlo Calculations.- 3.4. Backscattered Electrons.- 3.4.1. Atomic Number Dependence.- 3.4.2. Energy Dependence.- 3.4.3. Tilt Dependence.- 3.4.4. Angular Distribution.- 3.4.5. Energy Distribution.- 3.4.6. Spatial Distribution.- 3.4.7. Sampling Depth.- 3.5. Signals from Inelastic Scattering.- 3.5.1. Secondary Electrons.- 3.5.2. X-Rays.- 3.5.3. Auger Electrons.- 3.5.4. Cathodoluminescence.- 3.6. Summary.- 4. Image Formation in the Scanning Electron Microscope.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. The Basic SEM Imaging Process.- 4.2.1. Scanning Action.- 4.2.2. Image Construction (Mapping).- 4.2.3. Magnification.- 4.2.4. Picture Element (Picture Point).- 4.2.5. Depth of Field.- 4.2.6. Image Distortions.- 4.3. Stereomicroscopy.- 4.4. Detectors.- 4.4.1. Electron Detectors.- 4.4.2. Cathodoluminescence Detectors.- 4.5. The Roles of Specimen and Detector in Contrast Formation.- 4.5.1. Contrast.- 4.5.2. Atomic Number (Compositional) Contrast (Backscattered Electron Signal).- 4.5.3. Compositional Contrast (Secondary-Electron Signal).- 4.5.4. Contrast Components.- 4.5.5. Topographic Contrast.- 4.6. Image Quality.- 4.6.1. Signal Quality and Contrast Information.- 4.6.2. Strategy in SEM Imaging.- 4.6.3. Resolution Limitations.- 4.7. Signal Processing for the Display of Contrast Information.- 4.7.1. The Visibility Problem.- 4.7.2. Signal Processing Techniques.- 4.7.3. Combinations of Detectors.- 4.7.4. Beam Energy Effects.- 4.7.5. Summary.- 5. X-Ray Spectral WDS and EDS.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometer.- 5.2.1. Basic Design.- 5.2.2. The X-Ray Detector.- 5.2.3. Detector Electronics.- 5.3. Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer.- 5.3.1. Operating Principles.- 5.3.2. The Detection Process.- 5.3.3. Artifacts of the Detection Process.- 5.3.4. The Main Amplifier and Pulse Pileup Rejection.- 5.3.5. Artifacts from the Detector Environment.- 5.3.6. The Multichannel Analyzer.- 5.3.7. Summary of EDS Operation and Artifacts.- 5.4. Comparison of Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometers with Energy-Dispersive Spectrometers.- 5.4.1. Geometrical Collection Efficiency.- 5.4.2. Quantum Efficiency.- 5.4.3. Resolution.- 5.4.4. Spectral Acceptance Range.- 5.4.5. Maximum Count Rate.- 5.4.6. Minimum Probe Size.- 5.4.7. Speed of Analysis.- 5.4.8. Spectral Artifacts.- Initial Detector Setup and Testing.- 6. Qualitative X-Ray Analysis.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 6.2.1. X-Ray Lines.- 6.2.2. Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 6.2.3. Pathological Overlaps in EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 6.2.4. Examples of EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 6.3. WDS Qualitative Analysis.- 6.3.1. Measurement of X-Ray Lines.- 6.3.2. Guidelines for WDS Qualitative Analysis.- 6.4. X-Ray Scanning.- 7. Quantitative X-Ray Microanalysis.- 7.1. Introduction.- 7.2. ZAF Technique.- 7.2.1. Introduction.- 7.2.2. The Absorption Factor, A.- 7.2.3. The Atomic Number Factor, Z.- 7.2.4. The Characteristic Fluorescence Correction, F.- 7.2.5. The Continuum Fluorescence Correction.- 7.2.6. Summary Discussion of the ZAF Method.- 7.3. The Empirical Method.- 7.4.

692 pages, Paperback

Published June 2, 2013

About the author

Joseph Goldstein (born 1944) is one of the first American vipassana teachers (Fronsdal, 1998), co-founder of the Insight Meditation Society (IMS) with Jack Kornfield and Sharon Salzberg, contemporary author of numerous popular books on Buddhism (see publications below), resident guiding teacher at IMS, and leader of retreats worldwide on insight (vipassana) and lovingkindness (metta) meditation.

While the majority of Goldstein's publications introduce Westerners to primarily Theravada concepts, practices and values, his 2002 work, "One Dharma", explored the creation of an integrated framework for the Theravada, Tibetan and Zen traditions.