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Developing a Model of Islamic Psychology and Psychotherapy: Islamic Theology and Contemporary Understandings of Psychology
At a time when there is increasing need to offer psychotherapeutic approaches that accommodate clients’ religious and spiritual beliefs, and acknowledge the potential for healing and growth offered by religious frameworks, this book explores psychology from an Islamic paradigm and demonstrates how Islamic understandings of human nature, the self, and the soul can inform an Islamic psychotherapy.
Drawing on a qualitative, grounded theory analysis of interviews with Islamic scholars and clinicians, this unique volume distils complex religious concepts to reconcile Islamic theology with contemporary notions of psychology. Chapters offer nuanced explanations of relevant Islamic tradition and theological sources, consider how this relates to Western notions of psychotherapy and common misconceptions, and draw uniquely on first-hand data to develop a new theory of Islamic psychology. This, in turn, informs an innovative and empirically driven model of practice that translates Islamic understandings of human psychology into a clinical framework for Islamic psychotherapy.
An outstanding scholarly contribution to the modern and emerging discipline of Islamic psychology, this book makes a pioneering contribution to the integration of the Islamic sciences and clinical mental health practice. It will be a key resource for scholars, researchers, and practicing clinicians with an interest in Islamic psychology and Muslim mental health, as well as religion, spirituality and psychology more broadly.
Drawing on a qualitative, grounded theory analysis of interviews with Islamic scholars and clinicians, this unique volume distils complex religious concepts to reconcile Islamic theology with contemporary notions of psychology. Chapters offer nuanced explanations of relevant Islamic tradition and theological sources, consider how this relates to Western notions of psychotherapy and common misconceptions, and draw uniquely on first-hand data to develop a new theory of Islamic psychology. This, in turn, informs an innovative and empirically driven model of practice that translates Islamic understandings of human psychology into a clinical framework for Islamic psychotherapy.
An outstanding scholarly contribution to the modern and emerging discipline of Islamic psychology, this book makes a pioneering contribution to the integration of the Islamic sciences and clinical mental health practice. It will be a key resource for scholars, researchers, and practicing clinicians with an interest in Islamic psychology and Muslim mental health, as well as religion, spirituality and psychology more broadly.
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Published July 29, 2021
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August 24, 2024
This book is indeed a seminal work in establishing the fundamentals of Islamic psychology and its application in psychotherapy. Several key topics are highlighted in relation to the book:
(1) Preliminary Problems of an Islamic Psychology
Three important distinctions must be observed before undertaking a monumental task like defining Islamic psychology, to prevent well-intentioned efforts from leading to regrettable confusion. These distinctions are: between the subject and the subject matter, between explicit and implicit integration, and between subdiagnostic and unstable patients.
Explicit integration involves practices such as reciting Quranic verses related to a patient’s conflicts or performing congregational prayers with those suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder. Implicit integration, on the other hand, subtly incorporates Islamic values into therapy, such as recognizing the patient’s struggle at different levels of the Self and the need for immediate intervention in prohibited behaviors, which are now understood as directly detrimental to the healing of the soul.
There is no doubt that any patient can benefit from a transcendentally conscious physician or psychiatrist. However, it remains an open question whether the human body or cognitive apparatus can directly benefit from such an approach. Islamic understanding posits that even the human body possesses a spiritual substratum, making miraculous cures plausible through the workings of Saints. Nonetheless, Islamic total occasionalism does not preclude the “occasional obedience of events to scientific laws” as one of the modes of God’s Will (sunnatullah). Thus, just as surgery is indicated for a patient with acute torsion and our insistence on this does not negate our belief that the body is part of the “manifestation of God’s Attributes,” the cognitive apparatus need not necessarily be subjected to explicit Islamic psychotherapeutic modalities.
Different subsets of patients benefit from different modes of treatment. For unstable patients, expressions of spiritual complaints often ritualize their psychopathology rather than reflect literal spiritual conflicts. In this spirit, al-Balkhi prescribed a medieval version of cognitive behavioral therapy for those with obsessive-compulsive disorder, rather than reciting Quranic verses about the whisperings of the Devil. A depressive patient who justifies episodes of self-harm by referencing the tradition of a Companion of the Prophet who committed suicide would not benefit from clerical discussions on the tradition; instead, an exploration of the meaning behind their use of that specific tradition is necessary. Conversely, patients with subthreshold diagnoses or those presenting existential complaints may benefit from explicit integration, with an overarching goal of promoting transcendence and subsequent flourishing through non-clinical means such as volunteerism and spiritual classes.
(2) The Constructivist-Interpretive Approach of the Study
This study employs a constructivist-interpretive model, diverging from the traditional empiricist-positivist approach. The latter insists that only discrete and measurable elements can achieve objective validity, without acknowledging how their conclusions are influenced by their Western worldview. The author of this book ventures into new territory by using the constructivist-interpretive method, which “rejects the notion of objectivity and focuses on the meanings that can be constructed from interpretations of the data” (Weed, 2017, p. 5). Given the highly subjective and interpretive nature of the subject matter, the author deemed this method best suited to constructing an Islamic model of psychology.
This method involves conducting interviews with key informants who are subject-matter experts. These interviews are open-ended yet directed, aimed at eliciting rich data through personal experiences shared by the interviewees. The responses are then subjected to thematic analysis through “open coding,” which involves identifying and labeling meaningful text units relevant to the research question. These units are then integrated to create a coherent theory of Islamic psychology.
A key question that arises is how objective, reliable, and valid the research results are. First, the study’s overarching assumption differs from other experimental studies, as it considers hermeneutical data, such as interpretations and meanings, as valid as numerical data. Second, the author acknowledges that the research will not produce “the” Islamic psychological theory, but rather one of many (p. 62). As the author notes, “Constructivism assumes that aspects of the substantive theory are not necessarily universal but that some elements of it will be more relevant to some participants than others” (Weed, 2017), thus producing a theory that, while accurate and relevant to some, may not hold true for all.
While the author’s effort to systematize an Islamic psychological theory is commendable, we must also ask, at what cost? My concern is that if this research produces “an” Islamic psychological theory, one among many other truths, there is a risk of relegating Islamic knowledge to a status of possibility, one truth among many. Additionally, in relation to the above concern, will the results of this research articulate truth, or merely aggregate opinions, even hearsay? Ultimately, the challenges posed by this research method illustrate why it is considered a relatively low-veracity method.
On another note, there is a serious problem in our approach to generating publications. Do the results we produce constitute truth, or merely facts? Certainly, facts do not necessarily constitute truth, as shown by many seminal papers withdrawn from prestigious journals like The Lancet. We need to rethink our approach to creating publications; in addition to producing a coherent body of facts, it must also correspond to the truth. While people have long debated and even fought over their definitions of truth, for Muslims, the answer is clear: Truth radiates solely from Revelation and Tradition.
For clinicians and researchers, the answer lies first in the humility to recognize that man’s inductive reasoning can never yield an a priori law. Secondly, continuous, honest self-scrutiny, cross-referencing, and experimenting can, at most, approximate truth, and at the very least, steer us away from harmful practices.
(3) The Results of the Study
The key respondents were able to arrive at a consensual model regarding the Self in Islam, based on al-Attas’ conception. The Self is understood as a totality consisting of four modes: when conceived in its animalistic aspect, it is called nafs; in its spiritual aspect, it is called ruh; in its executive or integrative aspect, it is called qalb; and in its estimating or rationalizing aspect, it is called aql. The Self, in relation to its closeness to God, can occupy several levels: nafs al-ammarah (the Self that commands to evil), nafs al-lawwamah (the self-reproaching Self), and nafs al-mutmainnah (the soul at peace).
The psychotherapeutic process described by the participants ultimately aligns with the stages of psychotherapy outlined by Jung: catharsis, elucidation, education, and transformation. This process involves cognitive reframing and experiential rescripting of negative thoughts and behaviors into more constructive and developed ones, now integrated with varying levels of Islamic tenets. The four distinctions of ruh-qalb-aql-nafs are actively used in therapy, rather than relying on the Freudian iceberg model or other Western paradigms. Some participants also employ more explicit methods, such as performing prayers and recitations together, and reading Quranic verses and Prophetic traditions.
It is noteworthy that all participants are aware of the limits between Islamic psychotherapy and Islamic psychology proper, which brings us back to the initial distinctions discussed. If the incorporation of Islamic knowledge is largely implicit, with explicit integration only to a certain extent, and if proper education on the stages of the Soul and the elucidation of the Reality of the Soul must be conducted by an initiated spiritual teacher, then a reconsideration of the scope of Islamic psychology is necessary.
Perhaps Islamic psychotherapy is specifically suited for subdiagnostic patients—those particularly conflicted between their desires and Islamic tenets. For unstable patients, as with other forms of psychotherapy, explicit Islamic psychology is not recommended, as it may be grossly misinterpreted or even misused as part of the psychopathology. At this level, implicit integration by the psychiatrist might help, particularly in shaping their attitude towards the patient. Ultimately, the aim for the Islamic psychiatrist or psychotherapist, in my opinion, is to help the patient become aware of the transcendental, to assist in reframing their cognition so that they are prepared to embark on a journey of gnosis under the guidance of an initiated teacher in the Sufi path.
This approach finds its rightful application in the TIIP model of i’tidal (the process of bringing the patient to a state of equilibrium), with the ultimate goal of achieving ittihad (unity of being), which is more appropriately left to the Teachers of the Way.
(1) Preliminary Problems of an Islamic Psychology
Three important distinctions must be observed before undertaking a monumental task like defining Islamic psychology, to prevent well-intentioned efforts from leading to regrettable confusion. These distinctions are: between the subject and the subject matter, between explicit and implicit integration, and between subdiagnostic and unstable patients.
Explicit integration involves practices such as reciting Quranic verses related to a patient’s conflicts or performing congregational prayers with those suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder. Implicit integration, on the other hand, subtly incorporates Islamic values into therapy, such as recognizing the patient’s struggle at different levels of the Self and the need for immediate intervention in prohibited behaviors, which are now understood as directly detrimental to the healing of the soul.
There is no doubt that any patient can benefit from a transcendentally conscious physician or psychiatrist. However, it remains an open question whether the human body or cognitive apparatus can directly benefit from such an approach. Islamic understanding posits that even the human body possesses a spiritual substratum, making miraculous cures plausible through the workings of Saints. Nonetheless, Islamic total occasionalism does not preclude the “occasional obedience of events to scientific laws” as one of the modes of God’s Will (sunnatullah). Thus, just as surgery is indicated for a patient with acute torsion and our insistence on this does not negate our belief that the body is part of the “manifestation of God’s Attributes,” the cognitive apparatus need not necessarily be subjected to explicit Islamic psychotherapeutic modalities.
Different subsets of patients benefit from different modes of treatment. For unstable patients, expressions of spiritual complaints often ritualize their psychopathology rather than reflect literal spiritual conflicts. In this spirit, al-Balkhi prescribed a medieval version of cognitive behavioral therapy for those with obsessive-compulsive disorder, rather than reciting Quranic verses about the whisperings of the Devil. A depressive patient who justifies episodes of self-harm by referencing the tradition of a Companion of the Prophet who committed suicide would not benefit from clerical discussions on the tradition; instead, an exploration of the meaning behind their use of that specific tradition is necessary. Conversely, patients with subthreshold diagnoses or those presenting existential complaints may benefit from explicit integration, with an overarching goal of promoting transcendence and subsequent flourishing through non-clinical means such as volunteerism and spiritual classes.
(2) The Constructivist-Interpretive Approach of the Study
This study employs a constructivist-interpretive model, diverging from the traditional empiricist-positivist approach. The latter insists that only discrete and measurable elements can achieve objective validity, without acknowledging how their conclusions are influenced by their Western worldview. The author of this book ventures into new territory by using the constructivist-interpretive method, which “rejects the notion of objectivity and focuses on the meanings that can be constructed from interpretations of the data” (Weed, 2017, p. 5). Given the highly subjective and interpretive nature of the subject matter, the author deemed this method best suited to constructing an Islamic model of psychology.
This method involves conducting interviews with key informants who are subject-matter experts. These interviews are open-ended yet directed, aimed at eliciting rich data through personal experiences shared by the interviewees. The responses are then subjected to thematic analysis through “open coding,” which involves identifying and labeling meaningful text units relevant to the research question. These units are then integrated to create a coherent theory of Islamic psychology.
A key question that arises is how objective, reliable, and valid the research results are. First, the study’s overarching assumption differs from other experimental studies, as it considers hermeneutical data, such as interpretations and meanings, as valid as numerical data. Second, the author acknowledges that the research will not produce “the” Islamic psychological theory, but rather one of many (p. 62). As the author notes, “Constructivism assumes that aspects of the substantive theory are not necessarily universal but that some elements of it will be more relevant to some participants than others” (Weed, 2017), thus producing a theory that, while accurate and relevant to some, may not hold true for all.
While the author’s effort to systematize an Islamic psychological theory is commendable, we must also ask, at what cost? My concern is that if this research produces “an” Islamic psychological theory, one among many other truths, there is a risk of relegating Islamic knowledge to a status of possibility, one truth among many. Additionally, in relation to the above concern, will the results of this research articulate truth, or merely aggregate opinions, even hearsay? Ultimately, the challenges posed by this research method illustrate why it is considered a relatively low-veracity method.
On another note, there is a serious problem in our approach to generating publications. Do the results we produce constitute truth, or merely facts? Certainly, facts do not necessarily constitute truth, as shown by many seminal papers withdrawn from prestigious journals like The Lancet. We need to rethink our approach to creating publications; in addition to producing a coherent body of facts, it must also correspond to the truth. While people have long debated and even fought over their definitions of truth, for Muslims, the answer is clear: Truth radiates solely from Revelation and Tradition.
For clinicians and researchers, the answer lies first in the humility to recognize that man’s inductive reasoning can never yield an a priori law. Secondly, continuous, honest self-scrutiny, cross-referencing, and experimenting can, at most, approximate truth, and at the very least, steer us away from harmful practices.
(3) The Results of the Study
The key respondents were able to arrive at a consensual model regarding the Self in Islam, based on al-Attas’ conception. The Self is understood as a totality consisting of four modes: when conceived in its animalistic aspect, it is called nafs; in its spiritual aspect, it is called ruh; in its executive or integrative aspect, it is called qalb; and in its estimating or rationalizing aspect, it is called aql. The Self, in relation to its closeness to God, can occupy several levels: nafs al-ammarah (the Self that commands to evil), nafs al-lawwamah (the self-reproaching Self), and nafs al-mutmainnah (the soul at peace).
The psychotherapeutic process described by the participants ultimately aligns with the stages of psychotherapy outlined by Jung: catharsis, elucidation, education, and transformation. This process involves cognitive reframing and experiential rescripting of negative thoughts and behaviors into more constructive and developed ones, now integrated with varying levels of Islamic tenets. The four distinctions of ruh-qalb-aql-nafs are actively used in therapy, rather than relying on the Freudian iceberg model or other Western paradigms. Some participants also employ more explicit methods, such as performing prayers and recitations together, and reading Quranic verses and Prophetic traditions.
It is noteworthy that all participants are aware of the limits between Islamic psychotherapy and Islamic psychology proper, which brings us back to the initial distinctions discussed. If the incorporation of Islamic knowledge is largely implicit, with explicit integration only to a certain extent, and if proper education on the stages of the Soul and the elucidation of the Reality of the Soul must be conducted by an initiated spiritual teacher, then a reconsideration of the scope of Islamic psychology is necessary.
Perhaps Islamic psychotherapy is specifically suited for subdiagnostic patients—those particularly conflicted between their desires and Islamic tenets. For unstable patients, as with other forms of psychotherapy, explicit Islamic psychology is not recommended, as it may be grossly misinterpreted or even misused as part of the psychopathology. At this level, implicit integration by the psychiatrist might help, particularly in shaping their attitude towards the patient. Ultimately, the aim for the Islamic psychiatrist or psychotherapist, in my opinion, is to help the patient become aware of the transcendental, to assist in reframing their cognition so that they are prepared to embark on a journey of gnosis under the guidance of an initiated teacher in the Sufi path.
This approach finds its rightful application in the TIIP model of i’tidal (the process of bringing the patient to a state of equilibrium), with the ultimate goal of achieving ittihad (unity of being), which is more appropriately left to the Teachers of the Way.
December 5, 2025
Very important academic research into Islamic psychology. There are certain things I didn't like, but it still deserves 5 stars.
Displaying 1 - 2 of 2 reviews