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Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints beyond the Oxus and Indus
Winner of the Albert Hourani Book Award
Sufis created the most extensive Muslim revivalist network in Asia before the twentieth century, generating a vibrant Persianate literary, intellectual, and spiritual culture while tying together a politically fractured world.
In a pathbreaking work combining social history, religious studies, and anthropology, Waleed Ziad examines the development across Asia of Muslim revivalist networks from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries. At the center of the story are the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi Sufis, who inspired major reformist movements and articulated effective social responses to the fracturing of Muslim political power amid European colonialism. In a time of political upheaval, the Mujaddidis fused Persian, Arabic, Turkic, and Indic literary traditions, mystical virtuosity, popular religious practices, and urban scholasticism in a unified yet flexible expression of Islam. The Mujaddidi “Hidden Caliphate,” as it was known, brought cohesion to diverse Muslim communities from Delhi through Peshawar to the steppes of Central Asia. And the legacy of Mujaddidi Sufis continues to shape the Muslim world, as their institutional structures, pedagogies, and critiques have worked their way into leading social movements from Turkey to Indonesia, and among the Muslims of China.
By shifting attention away from court politics, colonial actors, and the standard narrative of the “Great Game,” Ziad offers a new vision of Islamic sovereignty. At the same time, he demonstrates the pivotal place of the Afghan Empire in sustaining this vast inter-Asian web of scholastic and economic exchange. Based on extensive fieldwork across Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Pakistan at madrasas, Sufi monasteries, private libraries, and archives, Hidden Caliphate reveals the long-term influence of Mujaddidi reform and revival in the eastern Muslim world, bringing together seemingly disparate social, political, and intellectual currents from the Indian Ocean to Siberia.
Sufis created the most extensive Muslim revivalist network in Asia before the twentieth century, generating a vibrant Persianate literary, intellectual, and spiritual culture while tying together a politically fractured world.
In a pathbreaking work combining social history, religious studies, and anthropology, Waleed Ziad examines the development across Asia of Muslim revivalist networks from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries. At the center of the story are the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi Sufis, who inspired major reformist movements and articulated effective social responses to the fracturing of Muslim political power amid European colonialism. In a time of political upheaval, the Mujaddidis fused Persian, Arabic, Turkic, and Indic literary traditions, mystical virtuosity, popular religious practices, and urban scholasticism in a unified yet flexible expression of Islam. The Mujaddidi “Hidden Caliphate,” as it was known, brought cohesion to diverse Muslim communities from Delhi through Peshawar to the steppes of Central Asia. And the legacy of Mujaddidi Sufis continues to shape the Muslim world, as their institutional structures, pedagogies, and critiques have worked their way into leading social movements from Turkey to Indonesia, and among the Muslims of China.
By shifting attention away from court politics, colonial actors, and the standard narrative of the “Great Game,” Ziad offers a new vision of Islamic sovereignty. At the same time, he demonstrates the pivotal place of the Afghan Empire in sustaining this vast inter-Asian web of scholastic and economic exchange. Based on extensive fieldwork across Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Pakistan at madrasas, Sufi monasteries, private libraries, and archives, Hidden Caliphate reveals the long-term influence of Mujaddidi reform and revival in the eastern Muslim world, bringing together seemingly disparate social, political, and intellectual currents from the Indian Ocean to Siberia.
368 pages, Hardcover
Published December 14, 2021
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April 12, 2025
𝐁𝐨𝐨𝐤 𝐑𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐞𝐰: 𝐇𝐢𝐝𝐝𝐞𝐧 𝐂𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐭𝐞: 𝐒𝐮𝐟𝐢 𝐒𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐁𝐞𝐲𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐎𝐱𝐮𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐬 𝐛𝐲 𝐖𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐙𝐢𝐚𝐝
Waleed Ziad’s Hidden Caliphate is a remarkable and deeply researched study that uncovers the influence of the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi Sufi order across Central and South Asia from the 18th to the early 20th century. Moving beyond colonial-era narratives, especially those shaped by the British-Russian "Great Game," Ziad shifts the focus to the powerful role of Sufi scholar-saints. These spiritual leaders helped sustain Muslim communities through a vast network that combined religious authority, education, social services, and diplomacy. Ziad describes this structure as a “hidden caliphate”—a spiritual form of governance that operated independently of formal political powers. The book makes an important contribution to the fields of Islamic history, Sufism, and the study of the Persianate world.
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒉 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉
Ziad’s strength lies not only in his academic training but also in his extraordinary fieldwork. He conducted research in over 140 towns across Pakistan, Afghanistan , and Uzbekistan, and draws from sources in several languages, including Persian, Urdu, Arabic, Sindhi, Pashto and Uzbek. His approach combines history, anthropology, and religious studies, bringing both depth and clarity to the topic. By working directly with original documents like hagiographies, travel diaries, legal records, and Sufi manuals, Ziad reconstructs the lived experiences of these networks in vivid detail.
𝑴𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒆
The book centers on the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi Sufi order, which traces back to Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi , a major Islamic thinker who promoted a balance between Sufi spirituality and Islamic law. Ziad argues that this order built a flexible yet strong network of spiritual lodges—called khānaqāhs—which became centers of learning, trade, and peacemaking. These lodges spanned a wide area, from Delhi and Peshawar to Bukhara and Siberia.
Rather than seeing this era as a time of decline, Ziad shows that Sufi communities were active, adaptive, and influential, even as empires like the Mughals and Safavids fell and colonial powers rose. His geographical scope includes regions like Central Asia, Afghanistan, and northern India, while also showing ties to China, Turkey, and Mongolia.
𝑲𝒆𝒚 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
1. 𝘙𝘦𝘵𝘩𝘪𝘯𝘬𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘐𝘴𝘭𝘢𝘮𝘪𝘤 𝘈𝘶𝘵𝘩𝘰𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘺
Ziad introduces the idea of a “hidden caliphate,” where spiritual leaders like Fazl Ahmad Peshawari held influence without formal political power. Their khānaqāhs served not just religious functions but also helped manage conflicts, support trade, and act as centers of learning.
2. 𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘗𝘦𝘳𝘴𝘪𝘢𝘯𝘢𝘵𝘦 𝘞𝘰𝘳𝘭𝘥
Ziad highlights how Persian acted as a shared cultural and administrative language across regions. The Mujaddidis helped connect various ethnic and linguistic groups, maintaining a shared identity through Sufi teachings and Persian literary traditions.
3. 𝘍𝘭𝘦𝘹𝘪𝘣𝘪𝘭𝘪𝘵𝘺 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘌𝘯𝘥𝘶𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘤𝘦
Despite colonial interference and modernist critiques, the Mujaddidi order adapted well to changing times. Their decentralized structure allowed them to survive under different regimes, from the Sikh and British empires to early Afghan states.
4. 𝘙𝘦𝘸𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘊𝘰𝘭𝘰𝘯𝘪𝘢𝘭 𝘏𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘰𝘳𝘺
By focusing on Sufi networks, Ziad challenges traditional histories that only focus on colonial rulers or nationalist movements. He reveals how Muslim societies actively shaped their own political and cultural paths during this period.
5. 𝘙𝘦𝘭𝘪𝘨𝘪𝘰𝘶𝘴 𝘔𝘦𝘥𝘪𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘚𝘰𝘤𝘪𝘢𝘭 𝘊𝘰𝘩𝘦𝘴𝘪𝘰𝘯
The book includes detailed case studies from places like Swat, Waziristan, Ferghana, and Peshawar. These show how Sufi leaders played key roles in maintaining peace, organizing education, and even negotiating with foreign powers.
𝑴𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔
Ziad organizes the book around the spiritual lineage of Fazl Ahmad Peshawari. Key chapters include:
Peshawar & Bukhara: Centers of religious revival and diplomacy.
Ferghana & Khoqand: Home to Sufi diplomats who engaged with Russian forces.
Swat & Waziristan: Where Sufi leaders navigated tribal politics and colonial encroachment.
The book also includes helpful appendices, such as translations of Sufi texts, making it a valuable resource for researchers.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔
Introduction: Beyond the Great Game – Using a British traveler’s journey, Ziad introduces the idea of the "hidden caliphate" and sets the stage for a new way of understanding the region.
A Persianate Cosmopolis – Describes the cultural and political unity of the Persian-speaking world, despite shifting empires.
The Reviver of the Second Millennium – Focuses on Sirhindi’s teachings and their wide influence.
Transporting Sacred Knowledge – Explains how Mujaddidi texts spread standard Sufi practices across the region.
Reviving Bukhara’s Sanctity – Shows how Fazl Ahmad’s network helped restore spiritual life in Bukhara.
The Saint and the Khan – Highlights Fazl Ahmad’s relationship with the ruler of Bukhara.
Peshawar in Turmoil – Covers the challenges of colonial and sectarian pressures.
Guardians of the Caravans – Tells the story of trade protection and resistance to Wahhabi influence.
The Diplomat-Saints of Ferghana – Shows how Sufis dealt with Russian rule and cross-border politics.
From Swat to Kabul – Traces the continuation of the order through conflict and exile.
The Sage of North Waziristan – Concludes with the survival of the network into the modern era, even facing Taliban and Wahhabi opposition.
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔
Hidden Caliphate is a groundbreaking book that reshapes how we understand the role of Sufism in South and Central Asian history. Ziad’s thorough research, fresh perspective, and vivid storytelling offer a powerful account of how spiritual networks provided structure and stability in times of political change. This book is essential reading for anyone interested in Islamic history, Sufism, and the complex cultural world of the Persianate sphere. It is both scholarly and engaging—a rare and important combination.
Waleed Ziad’s Hidden Caliphate is a remarkable and deeply researched study that uncovers the influence of the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi Sufi order across Central and South Asia from the 18th to the early 20th century. Moving beyond colonial-era narratives, especially those shaped by the British-Russian "Great Game," Ziad shifts the focus to the powerful role of Sufi scholar-saints. These spiritual leaders helped sustain Muslim communities through a vast network that combined religious authority, education, social services, and diplomacy. Ziad describes this structure as a “hidden caliphate”—a spiritual form of governance that operated independently of formal political powers. The book makes an important contribution to the fields of Islamic history, Sufism, and the study of the Persianate world.
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒉 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉
Ziad’s strength lies not only in his academic training but also in his extraordinary fieldwork. He conducted research in over 140 towns across Pakistan, Afghanistan , and Uzbekistan, and draws from sources in several languages, including Persian, Urdu, Arabic, Sindhi, Pashto and Uzbek. His approach combines history, anthropology, and religious studies, bringing both depth and clarity to the topic. By working directly with original documents like hagiographies, travel diaries, legal records, and Sufi manuals, Ziad reconstructs the lived experiences of these networks in vivid detail.
𝑴𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒆
The book centers on the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi Sufi order, which traces back to Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi , a major Islamic thinker who promoted a balance between Sufi spirituality and Islamic law. Ziad argues that this order built a flexible yet strong network of spiritual lodges—called khānaqāhs—which became centers of learning, trade, and peacemaking. These lodges spanned a wide area, from Delhi and Peshawar to Bukhara and Siberia.
Rather than seeing this era as a time of decline, Ziad shows that Sufi communities were active, adaptive, and influential, even as empires like the Mughals and Safavids fell and colonial powers rose. His geographical scope includes regions like Central Asia, Afghanistan, and northern India, while also showing ties to China, Turkey, and Mongolia.
𝑲𝒆𝒚 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
1. 𝘙𝘦𝘵𝘩𝘪𝘯𝘬𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘐𝘴𝘭𝘢𝘮𝘪𝘤 𝘈𝘶𝘵𝘩𝘰𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘺
Ziad introduces the idea of a “hidden caliphate,” where spiritual leaders like Fazl Ahmad Peshawari held influence without formal political power. Their khānaqāhs served not just religious functions but also helped manage conflicts, support trade, and act as centers of learning.
2. 𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘗𝘦𝘳𝘴𝘪𝘢𝘯𝘢𝘵𝘦 𝘞𝘰𝘳𝘭𝘥
Ziad highlights how Persian acted as a shared cultural and administrative language across regions. The Mujaddidis helped connect various ethnic and linguistic groups, maintaining a shared identity through Sufi teachings and Persian literary traditions.
3. 𝘍𝘭𝘦𝘹𝘪𝘣𝘪𝘭𝘪𝘵𝘺 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘌𝘯𝘥𝘶𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘤𝘦
Despite colonial interference and modernist critiques, the Mujaddidi order adapted well to changing times. Their decentralized structure allowed them to survive under different regimes, from the Sikh and British empires to early Afghan states.
4. 𝘙𝘦𝘸𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘊𝘰𝘭𝘰𝘯𝘪𝘢𝘭 𝘏𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘰𝘳𝘺
By focusing on Sufi networks, Ziad challenges traditional histories that only focus on colonial rulers or nationalist movements. He reveals how Muslim societies actively shaped their own political and cultural paths during this period.
5. 𝘙𝘦𝘭𝘪𝘨𝘪𝘰𝘶𝘴 𝘔𝘦𝘥𝘪𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘚𝘰𝘤𝘪𝘢𝘭 𝘊𝘰𝘩𝘦𝘴𝘪𝘰𝘯
The book includes detailed case studies from places like Swat, Waziristan, Ferghana, and Peshawar. These show how Sufi leaders played key roles in maintaining peace, organizing education, and even negotiating with foreign powers.
𝑴𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔
Ziad organizes the book around the spiritual lineage of Fazl Ahmad Peshawari. Key chapters include:
Peshawar & Bukhara: Centers of religious revival and diplomacy.
Ferghana & Khoqand: Home to Sufi diplomats who engaged with Russian forces.
Swat & Waziristan: Where Sufi leaders navigated tribal politics and colonial encroachment.
The book also includes helpful appendices, such as translations of Sufi texts, making it a valuable resource for researchers.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔
Introduction: Beyond the Great Game – Using a British traveler’s journey, Ziad introduces the idea of the "hidden caliphate" and sets the stage for a new way of understanding the region.
A Persianate Cosmopolis – Describes the cultural and political unity of the Persian-speaking world, despite shifting empires.
The Reviver of the Second Millennium – Focuses on Sirhindi’s teachings and their wide influence.
Transporting Sacred Knowledge – Explains how Mujaddidi texts spread standard Sufi practices across the region.
Reviving Bukhara’s Sanctity – Shows how Fazl Ahmad’s network helped restore spiritual life in Bukhara.
The Saint and the Khan – Highlights Fazl Ahmad’s relationship with the ruler of Bukhara.
Peshawar in Turmoil – Covers the challenges of colonial and sectarian pressures.
Guardians of the Caravans – Tells the story of trade protection and resistance to Wahhabi influence.
The Diplomat-Saints of Ferghana – Shows how Sufis dealt with Russian rule and cross-border politics.
From Swat to Kabul – Traces the continuation of the order through conflict and exile.
The Sage of North Waziristan – Concludes with the survival of the network into the modern era, even facing Taliban and Wahhabi opposition.
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔
Hidden Caliphate is a groundbreaking book that reshapes how we understand the role of Sufism in South and Central Asian history. Ziad’s thorough research, fresh perspective, and vivid storytelling offer a powerful account of how spiritual networks provided structure and stability in times of political change. This book is essential reading for anyone interested in Islamic history, Sufism, and the complex cultural world of the Persianate sphere. It is both scholarly and engaging—a rare and important combination.
November 15, 2022
What an important contribution to a number of different fields--this is one I'll return to in the future, no question.
May 22, 2022
A good read and strongly recommended for those whom historical social being of the region is important...
Displaying 1 - 3 of 3 reviews