Ontogeny and Phylogeny

by Stephen Jay Gould

“Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” was Haeckel’s answer―the wrong one―to the most vexing question of nineteenth-century what is the relationship between individual development (ontogeny) and the evolution of species and lineages (phylogeny)? In this, the first major book on the subject in fifty years, Stephen Jay Gould documents the history of the idea of recapitulation from its first appearance among the pre-Socratics to its fall in the early twentieth century.

Mr. Gould explores recapitulation as an idea that intrigued politicians and theologians as well as scientists. He shows that Haeckel’s hypothesis―that human fetuses with gill slits are, literally, tiny fish, exact replicas of their water-breathing ancestors―had an influence that extended beyond biology into education, criminology, psychoanalysis (Freud and Jung were devout recapitulationists), and racism. The theory of recapitulation, Gould argues, finally collapsed not from the weight of contrary data, but because the rise of Mendelian genetics rendered it untenable.

Turning to modern concepts, Gould demonstrates that, even though the whole subject of parallels between ontogeny and phylogeny fell into disrepute, it is still one of the great themes of evolutionary biology. Heterochrony―changes in developmental timing, producing parallels between ontogeny and phylogeny―is shown to be crucial to an understanding of gene regulation, the key to any rapprochement between molecular and evolutionary biology. Gould argues that the primary evolutionary value of heterochrony may lie in immediate ecological advantages for slow or rapid maturation, rather than in long-term changes of form, as all previous theories proclaimed.

Neoteny―the opposite of recapitulation―is shown to be the most important determinant of human evolution. We have evolved by retaining the juvenile characters of our ancestors and have achieved both behavioral flexibility and our characteristic morphology thereby (large brains by prolonged retention of rapid fetal growth rates, for example).

Gould concludes that “there may be nothing new under the sun, but permutation of the old within complex systems can do wonders. As biologists, we deal directly with the kind of material complexity that confers an unbounded potential upon simple, continuous changes in underlying processes. This is the chief joy of our science.”

Genres: Science, Biology, Nonfiction, Evolution, History, Natural History, Philosophy

518 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1977

About the author

Stephen Jay Gould was a prominent American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science. He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of popular science of his generation. Gould spent most of his career teaching at Harvard University and working at the American Museum of Natural History in New York.

Most of Gould's empirical research was on land snails. Gould helped develop the theory of punctuated equilibrium, in which evolutionary stability is marked by instances of rapid change. He contributed to evolutionary developmental biology. In evolutionary theory, he opposed strict selectionism, sociobiology as applied to humans, and evolutionary psychology. He campaigned against creationism and proposed that science and religion should be considered two compatible, complementary fields, or "magisteria," whose authority does not overlap.

Many of Gould's essays were reprinted in collected volumes, such as Ever Since Darwin and The Panda's Thumb, while his popular treatises included books such as The Mismeasure of Man, Wonderful Life and Full House.
-Wikipedia

Reviews

[Thalia · Rating 5 out of 5]

One of Gould's earliest, definitely a book for scientists and people who love developmental biology, not so much for the mass market palate. As someone who spent a lot of time studying development, I love this book. Highly recommended for people who enjoy history and philosophy of science, too.

[boocia]

this book was a ton of fun . i mean obviously i am not a biologist and it was written for biologists so a lot flew over my head in detail, especially once he got into the nit and grit in the back half, but this book was great. in general really taken by //approach//. i like how the first half was a history of the idea of recapitulation from aristotle to the 1950s. i like how he took a chapter to discuss the cultural impact of the idea of recapitulation, specifically in upholding racism and sexism, and especially its impact on childhood education. i really like how he took the time to explain how something that would seem ludicrous to the present layperson and scientist - like the idea that inside each woman is hundreds of tiny fully formed humans in her eggs - was an entertainable idea to a scientist in the past; that frameworks and methodologies and metrics change and credibility with it.

that cultural impact chapter was a ton of fun (in addition to being the most accessible to the layperson). i've been interested for a while in this sort of cerulean belt effect wherein the various shades of darwinism in the scientific community become, in science fiction and elsewhere, social darwinism and evolution towards an ideal future civilized white man etc. i feel like gould really took the time through the history portion of this book to color in the finer detail for me here. i especially enjoyed how phylogeny and christianity were sort of intertwined in the beginning; how the great chain of being was really a data-backed biological theory, how the idea of slowly approaching a perfect ideal person - unless you fuck up and mutate away from it - could percolate down into fiction.

the science chapters were also just a ton of fun, in terms of just walking through an argument. i was really taken by how elegant his theory was, of how important regulation of development (when animals become reproductive, how long it takes to reach maturity, etc.) is to evolution across all kinds of species. about how fucking with or changing genes that regulate //when// things happen or //how fast// is an easier leap than idk, fully evolving a new nose or whatever. i loved learning about all these frogs n salamanders n bugs. i really loved the sections that were abt techniques; when it does or does not make sense to compare chimp skulls to human skulls — biology at a time when the rules of the game weren't set and everyone is still arguing about it, mid-paradigmatic in a way, maybe. i enjoyed the practice of trying to split the hairs between trying to explain human evolution as 'selecting for large brains' vs 'selecting for slower development time', even if the end result of each framework looks vaguely the same. its individual-animal-level perspective definitely felt like it wouldn't fit a neo-darwinist one of selfish genes, working a bit on a larger scale; but the elegance of how 'efficient' it is to just fuck with a few passing genes and have the others along for the ride felt very winning to me as a layman.

the epilogue is very romantic! about how humans are just babies, how we don't stop growing/changing even in our 90s, how across many species curiousity is a baby trait, but we never grow into full adults because of how slow our development is in a way so we're always curious ... it was a v sweet ender. i liked it a lot.

[John · Rating 5 out of 5]

One Of The Most Influential Books On Evolutionary Thought Published In The Past Twenty Five Years

If there is any book that has greatly reinvigorated interest in the relationship of developmental biology to evolutionary biology, then Stephen Jay Gould's "Ontogeny and Phylogeny" may be the most likely suspect. When it was published originally back in the late 1970s, this elegantly written volume was as much a superb overview of Gould's extensive scientific research up to that time, having been preoccupied with understanding allometry and its evolutionary implications for years and writing a series of memorable scientific papers for which he would receive such notable honors as the Paleontological Society's Schuchert Award (which is bestowed upon paleobiologists under the age of forty for making significant contributions to the field.). It is one of the rare technical books on evolutionary thought which have become widely read by others outside of evolutionary biology, and that is due mainly for its relevance as an important history of developmental biology and philosophy of science text as well as a more technical volume of primary interest to developmental biologists, paleobiologists and other evolutionary biologists. Stephen Jay Gould explores the relationship between ontogeny and phylogeny with an elegant historical overview which starts with ancient Greek philosophers and emphasizes the work of Ernst Haeckel, Gavin de Beer and others. His scientific discussion about various aspects of ontogeny (e. g. neoteny) remains among the best written accounts I have come across. Now more than ever, "Ontogeny and Phylogeny" remains an important contribution to the history and philosophy of evolutionary thought in biology, especially in light of the current, substantial interest in "evo-devo", or rather, the importance of developmental biology in affecting not only our understanding of speciation, but equally important, in trying to comprehend better the patterns and processes of macroevolution. So I am not exaggerating when I observe that "Ontogeny and Phylogeny" remains one of the most influential books on evolutionary thought published in the last twenty five years; I predict that it will remain one of Gould's most important contributions to evolutionary biology, and an enduring legacy to a scientific career that became well known to fellow scientists and the general public alike.

[Sean · Rating 4 out of 5]

A powerful vindication for the "historical turn" in the philosophy of science. Its account of shifting attitudes towards the ontogeny/phylogeny relation in 19th century biology reads as a Lakatosian parable: problematic "monsters" in the empirical data are explained away by dogmatists as but localized contingencies, or otherwise are incorporated into the prevailing theory as a theretofore "hidden lemma", weakening its generalization while leaving intact the central theorem. Recapitulation is then shown to evolve as a paradigmatic "normal science" leaving marginal its most salient critics (Von Baer) while reluctantly incorporating ineluctable counterexamples, until rendered obsolete in a sweeping, discontinuous fashion by the program of Mendelian inheritance.

(This dialogue with epistemology is largely relegated to the book's first half; the latter is rather a technical account of heterochrony in evolutionary biology.)

[Thalia · Rating 5 out of 5]

I think this is my favorite book by Stephen Jay Gould, which is saying quite a bit. He goes through the history and philosophy of science in the attempts to understand the mechanisms of evolution, particularly the development (ontogeny) of an individual species, and the evolutionary "shrub" (phylogeny) and how the two are connected.

A wonderful book, definetly something to read, think about, and read some more. Gould is (sadly, was) brilliant, and he leads the reader through the book without talking down to them. It's a book you have to be willing to engage in.

[Steven H · Rating 5 out of 5]

GOULD’S “EARLY”---BUT “MAJOR”---THEORETICAL WORK IN EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002) wrote in the “Acknowledgements” section of this 1977 book, “I view this book as an organism. I have lived with it for six years… Ernst Mayr, in a passing comment, suggested that I write this book. I only began it as a practice run to learn the style of lengthy exposition before embarking on my magnum opus about macroevolution. And I’m mighty glad I did because, in the meantime, my views on macroevolution have changed drastically and my original plan, had it been executed, would now be an embarrassment to me.” (Pg. vii-viii)

He outlines in the first chapter, “I began this book as an indulgent, antiquarian exercise in personal interest. I hoped, at best, to retrieve from its current limbo the ancient subject of parallels between ontogeny and phylogeny… But I soon decided that the subject needs no apology. Properly restructured, it stands as a central theme in evolutionary biology because it illuminates two issues of great contemporary importance: the evolution of ecological strategies and the biology of recapitulation… this book is primarily a long argument for the evolutionary importance of ‘heterochrony’---changes in the relative time of appearance and rate of development for characters already present in ancestors… This book emphasizes … the changes in developmental timing that produce parallels between the stages of ontogeny and phylogeny.” (Pg. 2) H

e adds, “Another motive for writing the book is my belief that the history of recapitulation illustrates some generalities about science that will surprise no historian but prove interesting to many scientists… Recapitulation was largely impervious to empirical disproof by accumulated exceptions. It fell when it became unfashionable in practice, following the rise of experimental embryology, and untenable in theory, following scientific change in … Mendelian genetics.” (Pg. 6)

He explains, “I wish to emphasize one other distinction. Evolution occurs when ontogeny is altered in one of two ways: when new characters are introduced at any stage of development with varying effects upon subsequent stages, or when characters already present undergo changes in developmental timing.” (Pg. 4)

He goes on, “‘Neoteny’ … represents the retardation of somatic development for selected organs and parts… Neoteny has been a (probably THE) major determinant of human evolution… Human development has slowed down. Within this ‘matrix of retardation,’ adaptive features of ancestral juveniles are easily retained. Retardation as a life-history strategy for longer learning and socialization may be far more important in human evolution than any of its morphological consequences.” (Pg. 9)

He suggests, “Recapitulation, in altered form, might have survived the collapse of terminal addition had it been able to retain a law of condensation. Recapitulationists … could still have maintained that new characters, wherever they arise, are always transferred back to appear earlier in descendant ontogenies. Ancestral features would always appear in more juvenile stages of descendants. This last hope for universal recapitulation was dashed by the discovery that genes act by controlling the RATES of processes.” (Pg. 204-205)

He summarizes, “But recapitulation was not ‘disproved’; … It was, instead, abandoned as a universal proposition and displayed as but one possible result of a more general process---evolutionary alteration of times and rates to produce acceleration and retardation in the ontogenetic development of specific characters… I shall devote the rest of this book to exploring the consequences of this generalization.” (Pg. 206)

He observes, “The notion of a parallel has been among the most important themes in the history of biology since Aristotle’s time… I have a faith that the most formidable intellects of the past cannot have been so deluded that they persistently centered their discussion on a trivial part of a larger subject. I will therefore assume that it is still important to discuss what constitutes a parallel between the stages of ontogeny and phylogeny, and to distinguish between the processes producing such parallels from other relationships between embryology and evolution.” (Pg. 212-213)

He outlines, “I shall be emphasizing the immediate significance of heterochrony throughout the rest of this book, primarily because it has been so widely ignored. In so doing, I am neither attacking traditional arguments… nor trying to undermine the concept of retrospective significance in general. In fact, my ulterior motive as a paleontologist is to prove the importance of my profession by demonstrating that the study of macroevolution, with its emphasis on retrospective significance, cannot be subsumed in the study of living populations, with its necessary concern for immediate significance alone.” (Pg. 286)

Later, he adds, “Since heterochrony can arise rapidly and ‘easily’ by an alteration in endocrine balance, it seems reasonable to consider even large paedomorphic changes in terms of their immediate significance for evolution of life-history strategies in differing ecological circumstances.” (Pg. 302)

After showing a photograph illustrating that baby chimpanzees are much more “manlike” than adult chimps, he comments, “The resemblance of adult humans to juvenile apes was treated as an anomaly throughout the heyday of recapitulation. But single ugly facts… do not destroy great theories… E.D. Cope considered the problem in great detail and admitted that many human features had evolved by retardation. But he quickly added that these retarded features were not involved in our superiority, and that the progressive features of our mental development displayed acceleration and recapitulation.” (Pg. 355)

He adds, “The structural sequence of Australopithecus africanus, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens exhibits a progressive retention of juvenile proportions by adults as the brain increases and the jaw decreases. Moreover, the juveniles of Taung and Modjokerto prophesy, so to speak, the proportions later attained by descendant adults; no reference to the idealized juvenile form of a hypothetical ancestor is needed.” (Pg. 358)

He notes, “What juvenile among living primates is most similar in form to the young stages of our forebears? The answer must be: our own juvenile form itself… If we choose a sufficiently early stage, the fetus of practically any higher primate (human and chimp included) can serve as a reasonable prototype… We might as well use the juvenile stage of each species as its own prototype and judge our relative paedomorphosis by the following criterion: do we as adults depart less from our own early form than other higher primates do from theirs.” (Pg. 387-388)

He concludes, “Throughout this book, I have tried to demonstrate that heterochrony is extremely important in evolution---both in frequency of occurrence and as the basis of significant evolutionary change. I hope that I have added thereby some support for the belief that alterations in regulation form the major stuff of evolutionary change. The reconciliation of our gradualistic bias with the appearance of discontinuity is a classical problem of intellectual history… External discontinuity may well be inherent in underlying continuity, provided that a system displays enough complexity. The evolution of consciousness can scarcely be matched as a momentous event in the history of life; yet I doubt that its efficient cause required much more than a heterochronic extension of fetal growth rates and patterns of cell proliferation… permutation of the old within complex systems can do wonders. As biologists, we deal directly with the kind of material complexity that confers and unbounded potential upon simple, continuous changes in underlying processes. This is the chief joy of our science.” (Pg. 409)

Besides being a highly creative evolutionary theorist, Gould was also a brilliant writer and an engaged "public intellectual." His presence is sorely missed on the scientific and literary scene.

[Àndros · Rating 5 out of 5]

It`s the most interesting opera about theorical evolution

[Randy · Rating 4 out of 5]

Good historical overview, very deep book on an intense subject

[Nico Van Straalen · Rating 3 out of 5]

Gould surprises even a biologist by his profound knowledge of the history of the most pervasive evolutionary concept at the end of the 19th century after Darwin's natural selection, recapitulation theory. There is much more to it than just Ernst Haeckel I learned. After the historical first half of the book Gould continues with formulating ideas on the importance of heterochrony in human evolution, and he was quite right about almost everything, in 1977. A classical book for any student of evolutionary biology.

[João · Rating 5 out of 5]

SJG showed how changes in regulation are the basis for macroevolution, re-conciliated the many views of embryology that are still taught or seen as "opposites", while simultaneously setting the foundations for what is now understood as evolutionary developmental biology. What an inspirational and powerful book.

[Douglas · Rating 4 out of 5]

Brilliant at its appearance and an inspiration for much further research. Nice figures accompanying shifts in developmental timing and stages. But -- and this is unfair for me judge both because of time and my own lack of knowledge of later evo-devo -- still seems to lack scientific imagination in its content. Gould picks a couple of paths and wears them out. There's a section that reviews old work on caterpillar stripes that still feels fresh but otherwise seems overwedded to allometry. The historical background and tangential asides are interesting, but (for me) make the book feel overlong by half.

So, despite its length is scientifically rather thin on ideas, surprisingly thin in retrospect considering how absolutely bonkers wide open the field was at the time.

Still, my favourite of Gould's books and the best of Gould's evolutionary biology that I've read so far. He is usually an effective if overlong writer and his impact on science popularisation is huge. His impact on evolutionary biology is justly limited and whether it deserves much attention is actively being reevaluated.

[Herb Neumann · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book was not written for popular consumption. Gould wrote my favorite essays in each month’s Natural History magazine and was quite good at telling stories about paleontology, evolution and related topics in a very easy-to-read manner. The title suggests a discussion of recapitulation and he does this, but the real intention seems to be toward a better understanding of human ontogeny. There is a long and deeply technical history of recapitulation theory, its supporters and detractors, over a period of 2000 years. Gould distills much of this down to what he considers to be the basic principles of ontogeny, namely acceleration and retardation. Although this book follows his publication on punctuated equilibrium by about five or six years, there is no direct mention of that theory; only some rather strong hints in the final sections of the book.

[Royce Ratterman · Rating 3 out of 5]

Most books are rated related to their usefulness and contributions to my research.
Overall, a good book for the researcher and enthusiast.
Read for personal research
- found this book's contents helpful and inspiring - number rating relates to the book's contribution to my needs.

[Joel Brumfield · Rating 5 out of 5]

not easily understood but once you grasp the terminolgy makes a sound argument about form following function and how environmental conditions detrmine ultimate ontogeny and phyogeny.

[Ian Pitchford · Rating 4 out of 5]

A very fine work of scholarship from Gould and certainly one of his best books.

[Samuel Viana]

I need to find an e-book version of this one... !

[Tato Serega · Rating 5 out of 5]

Claro, muy entretenido. Se aprende y se disfruta.