Carbon Queen: The Remarkable Life of Nanoscience Pioneer Mildred Dresselhaus

by Maia Weinstock

The life of trailblazing physicist Mildred Dresselhaus, who expanded our understanding of the physical world.

As a girl in New York City in the 1940s, Mildred “Millie” Dresselhaus was taught that there were only three career options open to secretary, nurse, or teacher. But sneaking into museums, purchasing three-cent copies of National Geographic , and devouring books on the history of science ignited in Dresselhaus (1930–2017) a passion for inquiry. In Carbon Queen , science writer Maia Weinstock describes how, with curiosity and drive, Dresselhaus defied expectations and forged a career as a pioneering scientist and engineer. Dresselhaus made highly influential discoveries about the properties of carbon and other materials and helped reshape our world in countless ways—from electronics to aviation to medicine to energy. She was also a trailblazer for women in STEM and a beloved educator, mentor, and colleague.

Her path wasn’t easy. Dresselhaus’s Bronx childhood was impoverished. Her graduate adviser felt educating women was a waste of time. But Dresselhaus persisted, finding mentors in Nobel Prize–winning physicists Rosalyn Yalow and Enrico Fermi. Eventually, Dresselhaus became one of the first female professors at MIT, where she would spend nearly six decades. Weinstock explores the basics of Dresselhaus’s work in carbon nanoscience accessibly and engagingly, describing how she identified key properties of carbon forms, including graphite, buckyballs, nanotubes, and graphene, leading to applications that range from lighter, stronger aircraft to more energy-efficient and flexible electronics.

Genres: Nonfiction, Science, Biography, Feminism, History, Biography Memoir

320 pages, Hardcover

Published March 1, 2022

Reviews

[Barbara · Rating 4 out of 5]

4.5 stars

Maia Weinstock, an American science writer and the deputy editor at MIT news, tells the remarkable story of the 'Queen of Carbon' Mildred (Millie) Dresselhaus.


Young Millie Dresselhaus


Millie Dresselhaus holding a LEGO figure of herself

During Millie's long career, she uncovered some of carbon's basic properties, paved the way for a future of carbon-based technologies, was a pioneer in research on nanostructures called fullerenes (buckyballs), and predicted the existence of carbon nanotubes - sheets of carbon atoms rolled up into tiny cylinders that can conduct electricity. (Nanotubes are 10,000 times thinner than a human hair.)


Nanotubes are 10,000 times thinner than a human hair.


Buckyballs are similar in diameter to nanotubes

Weinstock writes, "In all, Millie authored or co-authored an astounding 1,700 research articles and 8 books, largely relating to carbon and it's fundamental properties. But she was far more than a brilliant researcher. Millie was also a tireless educator and role model.....whom countless women in science and engineering looked up to." Among myriad other accolades, Millie was the first female MIT Institute Professor, the first woman to win a National Medal of Science in the category of engineering, and the first solo recipient of the prestigious Kavli Prize, given biennially in the disciplines of astrophysics, nanoscience, and neuroscience. Millie also received the National Medal of Science from President George H.W. Bush, served as director of the Department of Energy's Office of Science under President Bill Clinton, and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama.


Millie Dresselhaus receiving the Kavli Prize from King Harald of Norway

;
Millie Dresselhaus receiving the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama

Moreover, Millie rose to eminence from a childhood that started in extreme poverty, and she had to battle male chauvinists and society's resistance to women scientists along the way.

Millie Spiewak was born in 1930 in Brooklyn and grew up in the Bronx, where her immigrant Jewish parents struggled to make ends meet. Little Millie's first calling was music, and she won a scholarship for violin lessons at the Greenwich House Music School in Manhattan.


Greenwich House Music School

In addition to attending grade school and music school, Millie also had to work, and her first paying job began at the age of eight, when she tutored a special needs student for fifty cents a week for 15 to 20 hours of lessons. Later, Millie became an administrative helper in her junior high school and assisted with manufacturing assembly work her mother brought home to augment the family income. Millie was also employed as a child laborer in a zipper factory during her summers off from school and observed that "she used to hide when inspectors came around because she was under the legal minimum age for workers in New York City."

A perk of attending Greenwich House Music School was free tickets to concerts and theatrical performances, and Millie attended as many as she could. On top of that, young Millie became a film critic for the Greenwich House Music School newsletter, which gave her free access to big-name movies. Weinstock notes, "A bright young Millie blossomed into a veritable sponge, soaking up every experience and opportunity that crossed her path."

Millie's interest in science was stoked by books like Microbe Hunters by Paul de Kruif - which extolled fourteen men of science, and a biography of the two-time Nobel-prize winning physicist and chemist Marie Curie. Millie also saved up her tiny allowance to purchase old copies of National Geographic magazine, which "further immersed her young mind in scientific and humanistic thinking."


Physicist and Chemist Marie Curie

Only one New York magnet school accepted girls in the 1940s, and Millie managed to earn a place at the highly competitive Hunter College High School.



Millie supplemented her formal education by exploring the city's art and history museums and sneaking into astronomy shows at the Hayden Planetarium (which charged an entrance fee Millie couldn't afford). In high school, Millie became a REAL entrepreneur by developing a well-paying tutoring operation, for which she was paid $5 per hour ($67 an hour in 2021 dollars). Weinstock observes, "By the time she got to college, Millie had earned enough to not only help her parents with bills but also to become financially independent."

After graduating high school, Millie went on to attend Hunter College, and - at first - had only moderate aspirations. Teachers had told Millie there were only three possible careers for women, teaching, nursing, and secretarial work, and Millie was thinking of a job in secondary education.



Then Millie took an introductory physics course from Rosalyn Sussman Yalow (who later won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine), and the die was cast. Yalow saw whip-smart Millie's potential, and pushed her to pursue science research. Millie later said, "Yalow was the one who was most influential in leading me to attend graduate school and to go to the best schools and to study with the best scholars."


Rosalyn Sussman Yalow

After Hunter College, Millie got a Fulbright Scholarship to England's University of Cambridge, studied at Radcliffe College/Harvard University, and earned a Ph.D. from the University of Chicago - where she studied under Nobel laureate Enrico Fermi. Weinstock writes, "Throughout her career, Millie credited Fermi, whose genius allowed him to excel in both theory and experimentation, with teaching her to think like a physicist."


Enrico Fermi

Fermi and his wife Laura often hosted dinners for students, and this later inspired Millie to "provide her own students with a familial atmosphere at the lab, at group luncheons, and at events at the Dresselhauses' home....where kindred spirits enjoyed one another's company."

Enrico Fermi was a sharp contrast to Millie's Ph.D. advisor at the University of Chicago, Professor Andrew Lawson, who held a deep-seated bias against women in science. Lawson gave Millie no assistance with her research and was unhappy every time Millie got a fellowship or any kind of recognition because he thought it was a waste of resources. Millie later said, "When I sought him out, he essentially told me to get lost." Decades later, when Millie was famous in her field, Lawson "sincerely apologized." (Yeah.....maybe. 😕)


Professor Andrew Lawson

One man at the University of Chicago who was completely different from Lawson was Ph.D. student Gene Dresselhaus, a rising star in theoretical physics. When Gene and Millie met it was kismet, and - besides falling in love with Millie - Gene "provided a flood of encouragement in the absence of a proper advisor." Millie and Gene married and had four children, all while continuing with their stellar careers.


Millie and Gene Dresselhaus


Millie Dresselhaus' parents visit Millie, Gene, and the children


Millie Dresselhaus and her children

Gene was the most supportive helpful husband imaginable, and Weinstock provides an in depth look at the Dresselhauses' family life as well as their employment, research, collaborators, publications, accomplishments, awards, etc. - all of which you can read in the book.


Millie Dresselhaus teaching a class


Millie and Gene Dresselhaus with their long-time collaborator Morinobu Endo

In a nutshell, the Dresselhauses did most of their work at MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where they settled into a two-story, four-bedroom house that would be their home for 55-plus years. Millie and Gene's individual and joint work in carbon science set the stage for technologies that have already changed the world - such as rechargeable lithium ion batteries for your cell phone, and carbon fiber composites that have transformed industries from aviation to athletics. Millie and Gene also laid the groundwork for new science and engineering that are just now revolutionizing technologies of the future, from flexible digital displays to quantum computers.


Millie and Gene Dresselhaus worked together for their entire lives

In addition to Millie's research and teaching, she spent time with young women of MIT, to provide encouragement, advice, and a sounding board for their frustrations, which arose from discrimination in a male chauvinist environment. Weinstock observes, "Millie was destined to support women and other underrepresented students in critical ways for the rest of her career - at MIT and elsewhere." Weinstock provides many examples of Millie's assistance to students who didn't traditionally enter science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields.

On a personal note, Millie had several signature marks: a braided updo, inspired by an Austrian hairstyle, that insured Millie's hair was always neat and out of the way in the lab; Scandinavian style knit sweaters, one of Millie's favorites being a cardinal red with wine and black accents and silver buckles; and Millie's nickname, Queen of Carbon.


Millie Dresselhaus liked Scandinavian-style sweaters

As a creative outlet beyond her academic and service work, Millie enjoyed music, hiking, cooking and entertaining. Millie and Gene regularly opened their home to their associates, and "in addition to music nights, they often invited students, colleagues, and others to fill their abode with laughter, food, and conversation."


Millie Dressehaus enjoyed playing her violin

Millie passed away on February 20, 2017, surrounded by her loved ones. A marker at Millie's grave featuring carbon hexagons now reads: "Cherished Wife, Mother, Grandmother; Physicist & MIT Professor; Queen of Carbon - An improbable life, well shared."


Tribute to Millie Dresselhaus from her collaborator and friend Morinobu Endo

Weinstock's book is a well-researched and well-written overview of the life of a remarkable woman. Highly recommended.

Thanks to Netgalley, Maia Weinstock, and The MIT Press for a copy of the book.

You can follow my reviews at https://reviewsbybarbsaffer.blogspot.com

[Venky · Rating 5 out of 5]

When she sought out her PhD thesis advisor at the University of Chicago, he basically told her to get lost. The man was under the firm conviction that women had no place in Science. Another condescending and misogynistic faculty member asserted that neither she nor any other woman would ever teach his engineering students. When she offered to fill in the vacancy created by a Professor teaching a course on electromagnetic theory at Cornell University, the faculty met on a daily basis for a whole week to decide whether the young men in the classroom would pay attention to her, this notwithstanding the fact that she possessed a set of stellar academic credentials which few others could lay claim to. She took a sum total of five days away from work following the birth of three sons and within an hour of delivering one of the three kids, she was back at her laboratory with her newborn in tow.

Mildred “Millie” Dresselhaus, succeeded in not just bucking the rotten ‘establishment’ trends of her time. She also carved out an indelible niche of her own. She left behind an enduring legacy that represented the contrails of some of most seminal discoveries dotting the extremely specialised and complex sphere of nanotechnology. She spent a greater part of her life fighting for the empowerment of women in science and established numerous Forums that would enhance their creative abilities. At the time of her death on the 20th of February 2017, only the Nobel Prize eluded her, and as many would opine, unfairly so. She had bagged the distinguished Presidential Medal of Freedom, The National Medal of Science, the Enrico Fermi Award, the Vannevar Bush Award, the IEEE Medal of Honour and the Kavli Prize. All of these in addition to the forty honorary doctorates which she received from various institutions.

Deputy Editor at MIT news, author and producer of science and children’s media, Maia Weinstock pays endearing homage to the productive life and intriguing times of Millie Dresselhaus in the upcoming book “Carbon Queen”. The title is a reference to the moniker which Millie earned for her pioneering research involving the properties and potential of Carbon. Born in Brooklyn to Jewish immigrant parents, Millie showed prodigious talent both with the violin and her studies. Braving the ravages of Depression and the consequent poverty, Millie graduated from the Hunter College in New York.

Unlike Sir Issac Newton, Millie did not have the advantage of standing on the shoulders of giants to pursue her interests. While the number of giants doing research in the field of carbon was sparse, very few shoulders were offered as a pedestal for Millie to stand on, on account of her gender. The shoulders that lent succour however, made all the difference to the life and fortunes of Millie. Gene Dresselhaus, a brilliant physicist in his own right, not only collaborated extensively with Millie in her research but also ended up marrying her and taking a backseat to work in her shadows. A rare exception to the prevailing mores, Gene was to Millie what Max Planck was to the brilliant scientist Lise Meitner. A steady and benevolent influence, Gene was a rock against which Millie leant on frequently, respectfully and liberally throughout her most productive research years.

Donning the epaulets of an insatiably curious scientist, Millie was a trailblazer in every sense of the word. Employing scientific techniques that was way beyond her time, she upended the magnificently curious word of Carbon. Unearthing some fundamental properties of this ubiquitous element, Millie was the first scientist to have the prescience about the existence of nanotubes. Millie also laid the foundation for advanced research at the level of a nanoscale – using structures on the order of one-hundred thousandth the width of a human hair. In fact at one point in time, there were only three papers written in the domain of carbon research and all three were authored by Millie. Over her professional career, she authored or co-authored a dizzying 1,700 research papers and 8 books.

However the greatest achievement of this incandescent powerhouse, was her resoluteness in obliterating the plague of under representation of women in Science. Millie established the MIT Women’s Forum that analysed and evaluated the plight of women. As MIT professor of mechanical engineering Gang Chen once famously wrote for the MIT Technology Review, “at MIT, there are many Jedi knights, but Millie stands out as our Yoda….Warm and open, she is always receptive, ready to work and willing to help”.

Just before Millie died, General Electric requested the genius to feature in a sixty second commercial. The underlying theme of the commercial was questioning “what of notable women in science were treated as celebrities with the same cachet as professional athletes, pop starts and Hollywood actors?” This commercial had Millie being extolled for her intellect and humanity. There were Millie dolls and “Millie Days” and paparazzi hounding her wherever she went. This was part of GE’s initiative to expand the women employee number to 20,000 across GE companies spread around the world. Unfortunately Millie did not live to see the commercial that became a monster hit. She passed away peacefully following a stroke. She was eighty six.

Andrew Werner Lawson the stonehearted PhD advisor who showed scant respect to Millie during her student days acknowledged his bias and prejudice many years later and even organised a grand symposium where he requested Millie to deliver a grand lecture. Maybe he was racked by a guilt syndrome which he wanted to get off his back; or perhaps he developed a conscience in spontaneity; or he may just have wanted to feed off the glory of a woman who had the last laugh. Either way Millie’s magnanimity and character would not have spent even a single minute dwelling on the reasons. As Millie herself said recounting the apologia of Lawson, “I thought that was very gracious of him.”

“Carbon Queen” – for the ages!

(Carbon Queen: The Remarkable Life of Nanoscience Pioneer Mildred Dresselhaus by Maia Weinstock is published by the MIT Press and will be available for sale from the 1st of March, 2022)

[James Male · Rating 3 out of 5]

I'm very happy this book exists, but I wish it was written differently. It reads like an extra long newspaper article.

[Robin · Rating 5 out of 5]

Maia Weinstock, Carbon Queen The Remarkable life of Nanoscience Pioneer Mildred Dresselhaus, The MIT Press, 2022.

Thank you NetGalley for providing me with this uncorrected proof in exchange for an honest review.

This inspiring biography begins with a stunning idea which brings to life the ‘what might be’ of women’s lives and celebratory status. At the same time as being instructive, it is heart-breaking – the fictional accounts of the accolades that Mildred Dresselhaus might have received if women were treated equally are graphic reminders that indeed they are not. Carbon Queen is the story of a woman whose accomplishments exceeded even those that the General Electric video described and enhanced in the prologue sought to bring to the public.

The biography is a compelling mixture of scientific information and an account of an impressive woman’s life as scientist, academic, teacher, mentor, parent and partner drawn together by a writer whose scientific background is valuable, and understanding of women’s position is sensitive, well researched and well written. I was interested that Maia Weinstock referred to women’s work at home as well as in the paid workforce, so gently expressed, but nevertheless making a salient point.

Weinstock also depicts Mildred Dresselhaus’s ability to move around obstacles, to adapt to the sexism she encountered and to pursue her aims as strength rather than ‘giving in’ to the inevitable. Dresselhaus’s resilience and determination to achieve in her field (or possibly more correctly fields) are well drawn – there is no doubt that she was a woman of stature, but one that was pleasant, prepared to forgive slights, ready to adapt but as adamantly determined to make her mark in what was so often seen as a ‘man’s world’. This is very clever writing indeed – we are presented with a truly likeable and more than competent woman on a journey that leaves us feeling positive and strong, along with Millie (as she was generally known) Dresselhaus.

Readers with scientific interests will be engrossed by the scientific detail which Weinstock provides; those who are reading the biography because they are interested in the woman rather than the science will be pleasantly surprised with how accessible complex information becomes under Weinstock’s hand. Younger readers will not be surprised about the list of information and discoveries that were not available in 1958; older readers will be thrilled to see how the world has changed, and how well many of us have adapted. I really enjoyed returning to a pre-Carbon Queen world and realising how much difference this woman has made.

The book has such comprehensive and interesting acknowledgements that these pages are a worthy read in themselves. There is a detailed index and notes for each chapter. So, this is an academic book, as well as a warm and witty biography, together with a thorough and relatable journey through a scientific world made comprehensible to even the least scientific reader. I thoroughly enjoyed my journey in this amazing woman’s world. Thank you, Maia Weinstock for a marvellous read.

[Snorki · Rating 4 out of 5]

Biography of Millie Dresselhaus, a pioneer female scientist who spent a life in physics research, including some of the groundwork that led to the discovery of graphene. Growing up as a poor Jewish child in New York in the 1930s and 40s, she did not seem destined for a life in science, but her interest, intelligence and encouragement from key people helped her break down boundaries and forge a successful career in spite of many obstacles. She was both determined and compassionate, and this engaging biography tries to explore not just the scientist but also the woman, wife and mother. It is an interesting and thought-provoking - how much has changed, yet much needs to change. She got her PhD in 1958, at a time when many questioned the benefit of allowing women even to study science, whereas I started mine only 30 years later, but the idea of not doing it because I was female never even crossed my mind. However, fast forward another 30-odd years to today, 2022, and we still have woefully low proportions of women in many science and technology careers. Millie did much work to promote the cause of women in science, but this book is not just about that, it is about her as an extraordinary and interesting woman.

[Steve · Rating 5 out of 5]

I loved this book. The story is fascinating and compellingly-written. By necessity, this is a story about science and Weinstock explains the science brilliantly and with the use of great diagrams. It is also a story about the challenges that women in science faced and still face. And it’s a story about people and family. Overall this is a great book and I recommend it for anyone interested in the history of science. Thank you to Netgalley and MIT Press for the advance reader copy.

[Kam Yung Soh · Rating 5 out of 5]

A fascinating book on the life of 'Carbon Queen' Mildred Dresselhaus. As the description of the book states, she started out impoverished, but through her own efforts and ability to connect to people, she worked her way through education and research, eventually producing and leading a scientific effort to understand the properties of carbon in its many forms, leading to the world we now know, full of the fruits of her efforts (like carbon fibre, single molecular layers of carbon graphite and many others).

The book also emphasizes that hers was not an easy journey. Her own thesis advisor discouraged her research and did not think much of women (although he did apologize to her in later years) and American society did not (and still does not) value the work of women in academia. She not only proved them wrong, she was also one of the leaders pushing universities (like MIT) to end gender discrimination, and also leading and encouraging women (and also men from disadvantaged backgrounds) to pursue their scientific studies. She also had a very supportive husband who saw what she was capable of doing and was willing to help her achieve what she wanted at a time of gender discrimination in the scientific field.

Whether you know or not of her life and her work, this is a great book to read: easy to read with enough scientific details to give you an idea of what she was doing, along with a wealth of references to oral histories and scientific papers for you to get an idea of the breath and depth of her scientific and advocacy work.

[Mary | maryreadstoomuch · Rating 5 out of 5]

Thank you to MIT Press for providing a NetGalley ARC!

This biography of Mildred "Millie" Dresselhaus, aka the Carbon Queen, is an easy 5 star read for me! I love reading about women in science, but as a biologist, I haven't read much about women in the physical sciences. Dresselhaus contributed so much to science, in her research itself, in her mentoring, and in her advocacy for women in STEM. It was inspiring to read her story, and author Maia Weinstock did a wonderful job integrating perspectives from Dresselhaus' family and collaborators. I also liked learning more about carbon - the science in the book was well-explained so that I could understand it even without a background in the field.

The book is just over 200 pages, which is the perfect length for a biography like this, as it keeps the book from getting bogged down in detail. I recommend this one to anyone interested in STEM - I think it'd make a great graduation present for young adults pursuing STEM degrees.

[Michael Siemon · Rating 4 out of 5]

3.5/5

Pros:
A very worthwhile read for those interested in science and engineering, especially those with an ear towards physical and material sciences, and a well-done tribute to a pretty amazing life.

Cons:
While it’s clear that the author has an interest and connection with the subject, some of the writing falls flat for me. The writing can, at times, be a bit stiff, which isn’t unusual for biography-type works. My main disconnect is with the author’s continual use of metaphors in some of the explanations of scientific concepts. They mostly feel too abstract and lose the substance of the matter in purposefully informal language in their attempt to boil down the matters to a wider audience, but I feel like the author would’ve been better served by simply using straightforward, basic, language.

[John Wood · Rating 5 out of 5]

Such an excellent book! Millie Dresselhaus lived a remarkable life, from abject poverty in the Bronx to a legendary career in physics, blazing a trail for many women to follow. Her avid love of science allowed her to make so many groundbreaking discoveries and her people skills allowed her to cultivate friends and followers worldwide and leave an indelible mark in the history of science. This is a fascinating book, with the only drawback being the scientific explanations that are difficult for non-scientists to follow.

[William Patterson · Rating 4 out of 5]

A good biography of Mildred Dresselhaus that provides a good mix of describing her personal life, a non-technical overview of her scientific work, and discussion of her work expanding opportunities for women in scientific fields.

[Jacqueline · Rating 4 out of 5]

Really good biography, short, to the point, and interesting. What an inspiration to others in the STEM field. The book was just a tiny repetitive or overemphasized about a specific subject at points, but overall very accessible and conversational especially to those without any science background.

[Asif Khan · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is indeed a wonderful celebration of the illustrious life and career of Late Professor Mildred
Dresselhaus! I am sure that this is the first of many biographies that will be written on her!

[Elizabeth]

As heard on Clear+Vivid with Alan Alda:
https://clear-vivid-with-alan-alda.si...

[Ann]

Top 10 Biography 2022 (Booklist)

[Melissa Michelle · Rating 5 out of 5]

This was quite the fascinating book to read about a remarkable woman.

It's written in an easy to understand way.

I highly recommend this!

[Sarah]

Stopped reading. She is so talented and confident, it got depressing.