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Created Equal: How the Bible Broke with Ancient Political Thought
In Created Equal , Joshua Berman engages the text of the Hebrew Bible from a novel perspective, considering it as a document of social and political thought. He proposes that the Pentateuch can be read as the earliest prescription on record for the establishment of an egalitarian polity. What emerges is the blueprint for a society that would stand in stark contrast to the surrounding cultures of the ancient Near East -- Egypt, Mesopotamia, Ugarit, and the Hittite Empire - in which the hierarchical structure of the polity was centered on the figure of the king and his retinue. Berman shows that an egalitarian ideal is articulated in comprehensive fashion in the Pentateuch and is expressed in its theology, politics, economics, use of technologies of communication, and in its narrative literature. Throughout, he invokes parallels from the modern period as heuristic devices to illuminate ancient developments. Thus, for example, the constitutional principles in the Book of Deuteronomy
are examined in the light of those espoused by Montesquieu, and the rise of the novel in 18th-century England serves to illuminate the advent of new modes of storytelling in biblical narrative.
are examined in the light of those espoused by Montesquieu, and the rise of the novel in 18th-century England serves to illuminate the advent of new modes of storytelling in biblical narrative.
264 pages, Hardcover
First published September 1, 2008
26 people are currently reading
401 people want to read
About the author
Joshua A. Berman
12 books16 followersB.A. - Religion, Princeton University, 1987
PhD - Bible, Bar-Ilan University, 2002
PhD - Bible, Bar-Ilan University, 2002
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Displaying 1 - 13 of 13 reviews
June 19, 2023
When I first became a manager, I discovered a conundrum. I wanted to change things. Make things better. Cut fat. Implement processes. I learned the hard way that people can only take so much "improvement" at once.
People often ask, "Why didn't God simply outlaw slavery". or "Why isn’t the Bible more clear on equality?" I've found a principle in Scripture. Often the Bible writers were speaking into a time that may not have had the context for these ideas. Rather than create confusion, they established principles. These principles would ultimately blossom into the moral ideals we recognize today.
This is what Berman is saying. The Pentateuch plants the seeds in astonishing ways that finally flower to our modern mores. These ideas were a stark contrast from Israel's neighbors, such as a Suzerain treaty made not exclusively with the king but with the individual. I might add that except for these ancient writings, we never would have landed at "All men are created equal"
People often ask, "Why didn't God simply outlaw slavery". or "Why isn’t the Bible more clear on equality?" I've found a principle in Scripture. Often the Bible writers were speaking into a time that may not have had the context for these ideas. Rather than create confusion, they established principles. These principles would ultimately blossom into the moral ideals we recognize today.
This is what Berman is saying. The Pentateuch plants the seeds in astonishing ways that finally flower to our modern mores. These ideas were a stark contrast from Israel's neighbors, such as a Suzerain treaty made not exclusively with the king but with the individual. I might add that except for these ancient writings, we never would have landed at "All men are created equal"
August 19, 2023
In this volume, Rabbi and biblical scholar Joshua Berman offers a critical analysis of the Pentateuch through the lens of social science and political theory. He compares the political philosophy of biblical religion with other contemporary polities in the Ancient Neareast (like the Hittite polity, for example); and makes the case that the political ideal envisioned by the Pentateuch actually had a radically egalitarian impulse that aimed to ameliorate the effects of social stratification and inequity, to an extent that (arguably) wasn’t seen again until the period of western Enlightenment.
Berman highlights several notable differences between Israel’s Torah and the culture/religion of surrounding ANE communities—particularly as regards covenant, theology, and anthropology. These differences are primarily rooted in the Torah's unique and reappropriated conception of covenant. Though the Sinai covenant borrows from existing Suzerain-Vassal treaty structures, it departs from them in significant ways theologically. While Hittite suzerainty treaties, for instance, are virtually always agreements between two individual persons, the Bible makes clear that the whole congregation of Israel is the vassal/subordinate in the Sinai covenant. In other words, "every man in Israel is to view himself as having the status of a king conferred on him—a subordinate king who serves under the protection of, and in gratitude to, a divine sovereign" (41). More, the Sinai covenant is seen elsewhere in Scripture as a kind of marriage covenant (Ezek. 16:4-14), meaning all of Israel could be seen collectively as God's "marriage partner." This honorable status would be shared among all—not just an elite class. By making the whole of Israel the subordinate/vassal (rather than introducing some sort of elaborate, divinely legitimated hierarchy), the Torah makes significant strides in ameliorating social stratification and division. While kings, priests, and prophets did have unique political roles and responsibilities, the Hebrew Bible establishes a robust separation of powers and rejects exclusionary power strategies; it pursues instead a collective power strategy in which all members of society are equally accountable to Torah.
Contrary to having "a well-developed heavenly hierarchy...that would ipso facto grant metaphysical legitimation to an order of haves and have-nots" (88), the Pentateuch sees all of Israel as equally dependent upon and indebted to the LORD as liberator; the Exodus event serves as "a common seminal, liberating, and equalizing event" for Israel (ibid.). This theology plays out in several ways throughout Torah. In regard to land tenure in Leviticus 25, we see that all land ultimately belongs to God—and God grants His people rights to the land through the use of "land grants." Additionally, the laws of Leviticus 25 intentionally create safety nets for all classes of citizens—including the peasantry. While taxation in the ANE was often used to advance royal interests, the Pentateuch (and particularly Deuteronomy) encourages tithing for the sake of funding social programs that benefit the disadvantaged and foster a sense of collective identity and "mutual responsibility" (96). In a similar way, laws about lending and borrowing (like those in Deut. 23-24) prioritized human dignity, fostered collective identity, and lessened opportunities for the exploitation of the poor. Release edicts such as debt release (Deut. 15), land redemption (Lev. 25), and the manumission of slaves (Ex. 21, Deut. 15, Lev. 25) were regulated not by the king, but by God Himself. This ensured greater economic security for all citizens, and it removed the temptation to exploit edicts for political ends. In each of these instances, we see how the theology mentioned above is at work; Israel is not only reliant upon divine provision, but a broadly egalitarian agenda is also at play—one that promotes "the attenuation of the socioeconomic hierarchy" (83).
Finally, the majority of narratives in the ANE center around "royal theologies." These narratives were often addressed to deities, and they celebrated the achievements and great deeds of the king. In contrast, Israel's narratives, in service to covenant theology, are presented as a "national history" in which the focus is the "collective life of Israel" (138). More, the Hebrew Bible focuses a lot on the "detailed characterizations of individual protagonists, and...varied aspects of human character" (139). In other words, Biblical narrative is more anthropocentric in nature. Whereas pagan cultures often saw humans as nothing more than pawns in a polytheistic divine drama, Israel envisioned only one God over all creation—and human free agents played more central roles in the drama. In Exodus 19 and 24, we see that the Sinai covenant clearly has the "collective life of Israel" in view (e.g., Ex. 24:5-6; note that the nation collectively shares certain titles like, ‘treasured possession,’ ‘kingdom of priests,’ and ‘holy nation’).
Overall, I loved Berman's book. While our modern sensibilities can often (understandably) cause us to question the archaic ethics of Torah, Berman successfully demonstrates that the political vision of Torah was significantly progressive for its time. Nevertheless, there are aspects of the book with which some might take issue. For instance, Berman’s perspective on the provenance of the Pentateuch is rather important for substantiating his primary thesis—but Berman does not have the time or space to defend that perspective in this volume. So, while much of this book serves as a comparative study among ANE cultures, the reader is left with little to no evidence that the Pentateuch as it stands actually reflects the political thought of Israel during the middle-to-late Bronze Age (the context Berman assumes for the comparative study). I largely agree with Berman’s views on dating and authorship, so this doesn’t bother me too much; but I can understand how others might find it frustrating. Moreover, some may wish that Berman spent more time exploring the theology of gender, slavery, and foreign policy in ancient Israel; but I understand how that would have taken Berman well beyond his intended scope. Perhaps he’ll write about those things in another work. In any case, “Created Equal” is another excellent and thoughtful work by Berman; and I’m sure I’ll be referencing it and contemplating its contents for years to come.
Berman highlights several notable differences between Israel’s Torah and the culture/religion of surrounding ANE communities—particularly as regards covenant, theology, and anthropology. These differences are primarily rooted in the Torah's unique and reappropriated conception of covenant. Though the Sinai covenant borrows from existing Suzerain-Vassal treaty structures, it departs from them in significant ways theologically. While Hittite suzerainty treaties, for instance, are virtually always agreements between two individual persons, the Bible makes clear that the whole congregation of Israel is the vassal/subordinate in the Sinai covenant. In other words, "every man in Israel is to view himself as having the status of a king conferred on him—a subordinate king who serves under the protection of, and in gratitude to, a divine sovereign" (41). More, the Sinai covenant is seen elsewhere in Scripture as a kind of marriage covenant (Ezek. 16:4-14), meaning all of Israel could be seen collectively as God's "marriage partner." This honorable status would be shared among all—not just an elite class. By making the whole of Israel the subordinate/vassal (rather than introducing some sort of elaborate, divinely legitimated hierarchy), the Torah makes significant strides in ameliorating social stratification and division. While kings, priests, and prophets did have unique political roles and responsibilities, the Hebrew Bible establishes a robust separation of powers and rejects exclusionary power strategies; it pursues instead a collective power strategy in which all members of society are equally accountable to Torah.
Contrary to having "a well-developed heavenly hierarchy...that would ipso facto grant metaphysical legitimation to an order of haves and have-nots" (88), the Pentateuch sees all of Israel as equally dependent upon and indebted to the LORD as liberator; the Exodus event serves as "a common seminal, liberating, and equalizing event" for Israel (ibid.). This theology plays out in several ways throughout Torah. In regard to land tenure in Leviticus 25, we see that all land ultimately belongs to God—and God grants His people rights to the land through the use of "land grants." Additionally, the laws of Leviticus 25 intentionally create safety nets for all classes of citizens—including the peasantry. While taxation in the ANE was often used to advance royal interests, the Pentateuch (and particularly Deuteronomy) encourages tithing for the sake of funding social programs that benefit the disadvantaged and foster a sense of collective identity and "mutual responsibility" (96). In a similar way, laws about lending and borrowing (like those in Deut. 23-24) prioritized human dignity, fostered collective identity, and lessened opportunities for the exploitation of the poor. Release edicts such as debt release (Deut. 15), land redemption (Lev. 25), and the manumission of slaves (Ex. 21, Deut. 15, Lev. 25) were regulated not by the king, but by God Himself. This ensured greater economic security for all citizens, and it removed the temptation to exploit edicts for political ends. In each of these instances, we see how the theology mentioned above is at work; Israel is not only reliant upon divine provision, but a broadly egalitarian agenda is also at play—one that promotes "the attenuation of the socioeconomic hierarchy" (83).
Finally, the majority of narratives in the ANE center around "royal theologies." These narratives were often addressed to deities, and they celebrated the achievements and great deeds of the king. In contrast, Israel's narratives, in service to covenant theology, are presented as a "national history" in which the focus is the "collective life of Israel" (138). More, the Hebrew Bible focuses a lot on the "detailed characterizations of individual protagonists, and...varied aspects of human character" (139). In other words, Biblical narrative is more anthropocentric in nature. Whereas pagan cultures often saw humans as nothing more than pawns in a polytheistic divine drama, Israel envisioned only one God over all creation—and human free agents played more central roles in the drama. In Exodus 19 and 24, we see that the Sinai covenant clearly has the "collective life of Israel" in view (e.g., Ex. 24:5-6; note that the nation collectively shares certain titles like, ‘treasured possession,’ ‘kingdom of priests,’ and ‘holy nation’).
Overall, I loved Berman's book. While our modern sensibilities can often (understandably) cause us to question the archaic ethics of Torah, Berman successfully demonstrates that the political vision of Torah was significantly progressive for its time. Nevertheless, there are aspects of the book with which some might take issue. For instance, Berman’s perspective on the provenance of the Pentateuch is rather important for substantiating his primary thesis—but Berman does not have the time or space to defend that perspective in this volume. So, while much of this book serves as a comparative study among ANE cultures, the reader is left with little to no evidence that the Pentateuch as it stands actually reflects the political thought of Israel during the middle-to-late Bronze Age (the context Berman assumes for the comparative study). I largely agree with Berman’s views on dating and authorship, so this doesn’t bother me too much; but I can understand how others might find it frustrating. Moreover, some may wish that Berman spent more time exploring the theology of gender, slavery, and foreign policy in ancient Israel; but I understand how that would have taken Berman well beyond his intended scope. Perhaps he’ll write about those things in another work. In any case, “Created Equal” is another excellent and thoughtful work by Berman; and I’m sure I’ll be referencing it and contemplating its contents for years to come.
February 16, 2017
A very readable and compelling look at the political theology of the Penteteuch, Deuteronomy in particular. Berman contrasts the mythology and divine kingship in the surrounding areas to Israel to show a stark contrast. The covenant God makes with God's people give all people responsibility which puts them on an equal basis. Various topics such as the Jubilee cancellation of debt and servitude show God's preference for an equal society, not in the sense of everybody being the same, but in the sense of everybody being free to participate in the social and economic structure. The contrasts between biblical cancellation of debt and that of surrounding peoples is also analyzed in an enlightening way. Most interesting is the final portion where the role of literacy is discussed as the means to creating an equal society. Key to literacy is the emergence of an alphabetic script as opposed to an arcane hieroglyphic that actually creates a veil even to trained scribes. Highly recommended.
May 12, 2024
This book was really helpful to show the contrast between the Ancient Near East political thought and the political thought of the Pentateuch. While I was aware of many of the ideas presented in Created Equal, Berman does an excellent job making clear the similarities and differences present between the political writings of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt etc cultures and the culture of ancient Israel. While not an exhaustive work he covers enough to make clear how radically different the Pentateuch is compared to its contemporaries and works out those differences to show how modern political thought has been influenced not just by the ancient Greeks and Romans but by the even older document of Israel.
March 25, 2024
Such a thought provoking work. As I go through my second time doing the Bible in a year, I have fallen in love with meditation on Torah scripture and its implications. So this book came at a perfect time. I was treated to a captivating exploration of the Pentateuch through the lenses of social science and political theory. The author very skillfully navigates the complexities of ancient religious texts, offering me a fresh perspective that goes beyond the typical traditional theological analysis. Through comparisons with contemporaneous polities like the Hittite civilization, he shows the remarkably egalitarian undertone of the Pentateuch, challenging my own notions about social structures.
One of the book's most compelling aspects is its interdisciplinary approach, which integrates historical context, theological discourse, and sociopolitical analysis. By delving into the concept of covenant and its theological implications, the author invited me to reconsider the foundational principles of ancient societies and their relevance to many contemporary debates.
Moreover, Berman's examination of collective responsibility and inclusive governance are relatable far beyond ancient text. Through his analysis, i was prompted to engage in deeper reflections on power dynamics, social stratification, and the pursuit of egalitarian ideals.
This book is wonderful if you want to engage in thoughtful dialogue about the intersection of religion, politics, and society.
One of the book's most compelling aspects is its interdisciplinary approach, which integrates historical context, theological discourse, and sociopolitical analysis. By delving into the concept of covenant and its theological implications, the author invited me to reconsider the foundational principles of ancient societies and their relevance to many contemporary debates.
Moreover, Berman's examination of collective responsibility and inclusive governance are relatable far beyond ancient text. Through his analysis, i was prompted to engage in deeper reflections on power dynamics, social stratification, and the pursuit of egalitarian ideals.
This book is wonderful if you want to engage in thoughtful dialogue about the intersection of religion, politics, and society.
November 6, 2024
Crash course on Political Theory and Economic Theory in Deuteronomy. Takeaways for reference:
- The Torah is *very* anti-King: he can't amass an army, can't administer justice, can't dictate law, but instead must meditate on God's law like every other citizen
- Releasing debts and slaves on a standard Jubilee calendar took away a powerful tool for a new king to curry favor
- The law calling for a slave's ear to be pierced for wanting to remain with their master post-Jubliee is a sign of rejecting God's call for freedom (reversing the Exodus)
- It's vital that Levites couldn't hold land, or the tithe would have given them massive wealth like the priests of Egypt or Babylon
And the question Berman asks in the conclusion was fascinating: Why do we think we're created equal? From a Creation mindset (each person is created in God's image) or a Covenant mindset (we're called to be a kingdom of priests)? It's a question of individualist vs collective identity.
- The Torah is *very* anti-King: he can't amass an army, can't administer justice, can't dictate law, but instead must meditate on God's law like every other citizen
- Releasing debts and slaves on a standard Jubilee calendar took away a powerful tool for a new king to curry favor
- The law calling for a slave's ear to be pierced for wanting to remain with their master post-Jubliee is a sign of rejecting God's call for freedom (reversing the Exodus)
- It's vital that Levites couldn't hold land, or the tithe would have given them massive wealth like the priests of Egypt or Babylon
And the question Berman asks in the conclusion was fascinating: Why do we think we're created equal? From a Creation mindset (each person is created in God's image) or a Covenant mindset (we're called to be a kingdom of priests)? It's a question of individualist vs collective identity.
May 19, 2023
Created Equal is a great supplement to “Exploring the Composition of the Pentateuch” in the BBRS series. Berman makes a great argument for reading the Pentateuch (specifically Exod-Deut) as a whole, rather than breaking it down into smaller parts (part of the mythical Documentary Hypothesis approach), because the books are in their present form because they were meant to be read this way. Berman also includes a great argument in favor of their material and form dating very early, to the 13th century BCE at the latest.
The second part of the Created Equal is about exactly what the title suggests; how the Bible broke with ancient political thought. I learned a lot from this volume. Herman’s work alongside Tom Holland’s work in Dominion makes a powerful duo!
The second part of the Created Equal is about exactly what the title suggests; how the Bible broke with ancient political thought. I learned a lot from this volume. Herman’s work alongside Tom Holland’s work in Dominion makes a powerful duo!
January 28, 2023
A detailed and precise study of the ideals of the Old Testament compared to other societies in the Ancient Near East. At times, the text is a bit technical and repetitive (especially in early chapters), but overall, it makes for an insightful read in distinguishing a biblical worldview compared to Ancient Near Eastern and even Western societies.
October 24, 2022
Exciting premise with a decent execution
July 4, 2023
Good historical information
November 29, 2016
A compelling Jewish reading of the Pentateuch (mostly Deuteronomy) via an original political philosophical hermeneutic. Berman reads the Law as being in dialogue with existing political structures (similar to the pioneering work by Umberto Cassuto) and uncovers within it a profound departure with the exploitative tyrannical structures of the ancient Near East. In this way he is reminiscent of writers like Michael Walzer who have given similar modern political interpretations of the Bible. What Berman adds is a breadth of Biblical features (treaty-covenant genre, reworkings of manumission and other economic relief law, anti-elitist attitudes to the written word via alphabetic writing, and narrative shifts to human moral concerns) and a depth of knowledge with the ancient Near East background from up-to-date academic research. The overall effect is nothing short of extraordinary. Berman shows that a profound egalitarian streak runs through almost every feature of the Covenant texts. Such an approach was revolutionary on many fronts simultaneously and was not seriously rivaled until the founding of the United States (which consciously copied the Biblical Covenant). Of course it goes without saying that this egalitarian society never came to pass in practice in Ancient Israel--tribalism, monarchy and Persian client-state Temple tyranny eclipsed the egalitarian promise of the Biblical Covenant throughout the history of Ancient Israel. But like the founding texts of the United States, the Biblical Covenant provided a constant and powerful call to strive towards a better society. Required reading for anyone interested in what Biblical politics can mean and how it is still relevant for the post-modern political order.
February 3, 2014
This is a well written volume on a hot topic in biblical studies, the political science of the bible. I say bible and not Ancient Israel because Berman specifically sets out with a synchronic approach to the text and explicitly states he is working on the bible not attempting a reconstruction of the polity of ancient Israel. The study owes a lot to Yehezkel Kaufmann and Moshe Weinfeld in the analysis of the Priestly and Deuteronomic sources, particularly in relation to Hittite treaties. One neglected source which makes a sharp distinction between P and D is Israel Knohl's Sanctuary of Silence, which may have modified some of Berman's approach in minor ways.
November 16, 2017
Valeu cada centavo de dólar...
Na verdade, é o tipo de estudo cujas premissas/argumentos/conclusões me deram a impressão de que deveriam já estar disseminados como "clássicos" na discussão do assunto.
Enfim, não vejo ele sendo traduzido em português --- o que seria ótimo --- mas recomendo muito!
Vale a pena deixar de comprar 3 ou 4 outros livros para importar este aqui.
Na verdade, é o tipo de estudo cujas premissas/argumentos/conclusões me deram a impressão de que deveriam já estar disseminados como "clássicos" na discussão do assunto.
Enfim, não vejo ele sendo traduzido em português --- o que seria ótimo --- mas recomendo muito!
Vale a pena deixar de comprar 3 ou 4 outros livros para importar este aqui.
Displaying 1 - 13 of 13 reviews