“The universe is not a jigsaw puzzle of which we try to piece together the fragments, in the knowledge that one pattern exists, and one alone, in which they must all fit. We are faced with conflicting values; the dogma that they must somehow, somewhere be reconcilable is mere pious hope; experience shows that it is false. We must choose, and in choosing one thing lose another, irretrievably perhaps. If we choose individual liberty, this may entail a sacrifice of some form of organization which might have led to greater efficiency. If we choose justice, we may be forced to sacrifice mercy. If we choose knowledge we may sacrifice innocence and happiness.”
By the 1820s the world view of the Age of Reason, of Voltaire, Diderot, and the philosophes, was dying, having become stifling, trifling, and restrictive, no longer responsive to a rapidly changing culture. The Romantic movement came as a powerful new force, emphasizing emotion and personal commitment. Over time, however, it changed into something darker and more narcissistic, moving from “I must be true to myself” to “I must be true to an idea, whether it is right or wrong, and regardless of what harm it might cause to others or to myself.” Finally, under fascism and communism, it became, “How many people do we need to kill to remake the world? As many as it takes, all of them if necessary, and any show of pity or remorse makes you a traitor to the cause, unworthy to be among the Elect who will inherit our glorious new world.” This book explains the hundred year slide from high-minded idealism to genocidal murder, and reminds us that the murderers never stopped thinking of themselves as high-minded idealists.
To be more precise, this is simply Volume Five of the collected works of Isaiah Berlin, and includes journal articles, correspondence, responses to critics, and even a book review. The heart of the book, however, is in the essays Joseph de Maistre and the Origins of Fascism and European Unity and Its Vicissitudes.
Joseph de Maistre lives on in the pantheon of conservative thinkers like Friedrich Hayek who are passionately praised by people who haven’t read him and wouldn’t understand him if they did. He was nevertheless an influential thinker in his time, an ardent defender of absolutism in religion, government, and society, and a committed enemy of science and progress. He was prepared to die in the last ditch to save the world he could already see passing away, and his writings became a source of inspiration for conservative theorists, as well as communist and fascist polemicists.
This book shows Isaiah Berlin at his best, presenting ideas with clarity and forcefulness, and I can’t speak for him any better than he speaks for himself, so I am going to quote some of the passages that I found insightful and illuminating.
- Both liberty and equality are among the primary goals pursued by human beings through many centuries; but total liberty for wolves is death to the lambs, total liberty of the powerful, the gifted, is not compatible with the rights to a decent existence of the weak and less gifted....Equality may demand the restraint of the liberty of those who wish to dominate; liberty...may have to be curtailed in order to make room for social welfare, to feed the hungry, to clothe the naked, to shelter the homeless, to leave room for the liberty of others, to allow justice or fairness to be exercised.
- Revolutions, wars, assassinations, extreme measures may in desperate situations be required. But history teaches us that their consequences are seldom what is anticipated; there is no guarantee, not even, at times, a high enough probability, that such acts will lead to improvement.
- Voltaire said that history ‘is a pack of tricks which we play upon the dead.’
- both the English and the German Romantics looked on mankind without contempt or pessimism, whereas Maistre...is consumed by the sense of original sin, the wickedness and worthlessness of the self-destructive stupidity of men left to themselves.
- Maistre’s passionate but lucid thought [was] that men can be saved only by being hemmed in by the terror of authority. They must be reminded at every instant of their lives of the frightening mystery that lies at the heart of creation; must be purged by perpetual suffering, must be humbled by being made conscious of their stupidity, malice and helplessness at every turn. War, torture, suffering are the inescapable human lot; men must bear them as best they can.
- [In Maistre’s view] religion is superior to reason not because it returns more convincing answers than reason, but because it returns no answer at all. It does not persuade or argue, it commands. Faith is truly faith only when it is blind; once it looks for justification it is done for.
- Maistre maintains that all suffering, whether it falls on the heads of the guilty or the innocent, must be expiation of sin committed by someone at some time. Why is this so? Because pain must have a purpose, and since its only purpose is penal, there must, somewhere in the universe, exist a sum of transgression sufficient to cause a corresponding sum of suffering to occur; else the existence of evil could not be explained or justified, and the universe would lack moral government.
- The Fascists and National Socialists did not expect inferior classes, or races, or individuals to understand or sympathise with their own goals; their inferiority was innate, ineradicable, since it was due to blood, or race, or some other irremovable characteristic; any attempt on the part of such creatures to pretend to equality with their masters, or even to comprehension of their ideals, was regarded as arrogant and presumptuous.
- Nationalism is not consciousness of the reality of national character, nor pride in it. It is a belief in the unique mission of a nation, as being intrinsically superior to the goals or attributes of whatever is outside it, so that if there is a conflict between my nation and other men, I am obliged to fight for my nation no matter what cost to other men.
- All men will not be saved: the proletariat, justly intent upon its own salvation, had best ignore the fate of their oppressors; even if they wish to return good for evil, they cannot save their enemies from ‘liquidation’. They are ‘expendable’ – their destruction can be neither averted nor regretted by a rational being, for it is the price that mankind must pay for the progress of reason itself: the road to the gates of Paradise is necessarily strewn with corpses ….Although it has been reached by a different road, this conclusion is curiously similar to the nationalist or Fascist point of view, and different from the outlook of previous ages. However bitter the hatreds between Christians, Jews and Muslims, or between different sects within these faiths, the argument for the extermination of heretics always rested on the belief that it was in principle possible to convert men to the truth, which was one and universal.
- presuppositions which had ruled Western thought since classical antiquity, were no longer taken for granted in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. By that time a new and immensely influential image began to take possession of the European Mind. This is the image of the heroic individual, imposing his will upon nature or society: of man not as the crown of a harmonious cosmos, but as a being ‘alienated’ from it, and seeking to subdue and dominate it.
- In the sixteenth century Calvin and Luther asked theological questions similar to those asked by, say, Loyola or Bellarmine; because their answers were different, they fought bitter wars against each other. Neither side had, or could have had, any respect for the position of the other – on the contrary, the more stubbornly and violently the enemy fought, the more deeply damned he was in the eyes of the true believer, who knew that he, and not the other possessed the truth; indeed the more deeply your adversary believed in his heresies, the more hateful he must be in the sight or God and man.
- By, say, 1820 a very different view prevails….The ideal presents itself in the form of a categorical imperative: serve the inner light within you because it burns within you, for that reason alone...[Romantics] do not state facts, they cannot be verified or falsified, they are not discoveries which you may have made and other can check: they are goals.
- The end of a man [under Romanticism] now is to realise the personal vision within him at whatever cost; his worst crime is to be untrue to this inner goal that is his, and his alone. What the effect of this vision may be on others does not concern him; he must be faithful to his inner light; that is all he knows and all he needs to know.
- What is the common ideal of life? The very notion has lost relevance. Questions of behaviour have no answers, since they are no longer conceived as questions….the answer lies not in knowledge conceived as reflective but in action itself.
- Are my values compatible with one another? Perhaps not….Justice and mercy are not compatible, yet I must seek both; must, because I have no choice: to deny either is to lie, to sin against the light. To realize what such values are is at times to recognise that they are both absolute and irreconcilable. In this way tragedy enters into life as part of its essence, not as something which can be resolved by rational adjustment: to hope to eliminate it is merely to cheat oneself.
- So too in my relations with others: I have an ideal to which I consecrate my life, you have another; our lives are not intelligible save in terms each of its own inner pattern; if these ideals come into conflict, it is incomparably better that we fight a duel, in which one of us may kill the other or we both die, than that either of use should compromise his beliefs. I respect you far more for fighting for your ideal, which I detest, that for any form of compromise, reconciliation, attempt to evade your responsibility to your true self.
- Idealism (a word which acquires its modern significance only in the course of this revolution of ideas)...acquired in the early nineteenth century an absolute value of its own, which we still respect: to say of a man the he is an idealist is to say that, although his goals may seem to us absurd or even repellent, if his behaviour is disinterested and he is ready to sacrifice himself in the name of a principle and against his obvious material interests, we think him worthy of deep respect.
- The Romantic outlook condemns success as such as both vulgar and immoral; for it is built, as often as not, on a betrayal of ones’ ideals, on a contemptible arrangement with the enemy. A correspondingly high value is placed upon defiance for its own sake, idealism, sincerity, purity of motive, resistance in the face of all odds, noble failure, which are contrasted with...peace bought at morally too high a cost. This is the doctrine of heroism and martyrdom, as against that of harmony and wisdom. It is inspiring, audacious, splendid, and sinister too.
- If self-realisation is aimed at as the ultimate goal, then might it not be that the transformation of the world by violence and skill is itself a kind of aesthetic act?….The victims of these great creative operations must take comfort, and indeed be exalted, by the consciousness that they are thereby lifted to a height which their own lower natures could never by themselves have achieved. This is the justification of acts which in terms of an older morality might be called brutal interference, imperialism, the crushing and maiming of individual human beings for the glory of a conqueror, or a State, or an ideology, the genius of the race.
- From this to extreme nationalism and to Fascism is but a short step. Once the assumption is made that life must be made to resemble a work of art, that the rules that apply to paints or sounds or words also apply to men, that human beings can be looked on as so much ‘human material’, a plastic medium to be wrought at will by the inspired creator, the notion of individuals as each constituting an independent source of ideals and goals – and end in himself – is overthrown….Hence the war of all against all, and the end of European unity.
- The tidal wave of feeling rose above its banks, and overflowed into the neighbouring provinces of politics and social life with literally devastating results. All forms of going to the bitter end were thought more worthy of man than peaceful negotiation, stopping halfway; extremism, conflict, war were glorified as such.
- The heroic individual, the free creator, became identified not with the unpolitical artist, but with leaders of men bending others to their indomitable will, or with classes, or races, or movement, or nations that asserted themselves against other, and identified their own liberty with the destruction of all that opposed them.
- In Hegel it is the nation organised as a State. In Marx it is the class organised as a revolutionary force. In both cases a large number of human beings must be sacrificed and annihilated if the ideal is to triumph. Unity may be the ultimate goal of humanity, but its method of attaining it is war and disintegration. The path may lead to a terrestrial paradise, but it is strewn with the corpses of the enemy, for whom no tear must be shed, since right and wrong, good and bad, success and failure, wisdom and folly, are all in the end determined by the objective ends of history, which has ‘condemned’ half mankind – unhistoric nations, members of obsolete classes, inferior races – to what Proudhon called ‘liquidation’, and Trotsky, in an equally picturesque phrase, described as the rubbish heap of history.