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296 pages, Kindle Edition
Published February 17, 2022
Before they were Christianized during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the pagan Finns considered the brown bear a sacred animal and a guardian of the forest (it is now one of Finland's national animals). Central to this was a celebration called the Karhunpeijaiset, where the bear was ritually killed. It was then brought back to the village for a great feast, where its meat was divided and its teeth given out to wear as amulets. It was believed this would imbue people with the bear's senses and powers. After the feast, the bear's skull and bones were carried back to the forest in a procession, accompanied by songs. The skull was hung from a tree, while the bones were buried. This ritual partly showed respect for the bear but also showed man's mastery over nature.
The only truly effective way of fighting the disease was the quarantine named after the forty-day period the Venetians would isolate visiting ships for.
Although the Black Death ended in 1353, plague remained endemic in many areas and periodic local outbreaks (such as occurred in London in 1665-6 and Marseilles in 1720) killed thousands. There were some benefits for survivors, who could demand higher wages and better working conditions as a result of shortage of labour. In Western Europe, the Black Death helped end feudalism, meaning peasants were no longer bound to a piece of land with an obligation to perform labour or pay dues to their lord. In Eastern Europe, which was generally more sparsely populated and less affected by plague, the nobility consolidated their control of the peasantry, which meant serfdom continued there into the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
On 4 October 1957, the Soviets sent the first artificial satellite into Earth orbit: Sputnik 1 (which meant 'fellow traveller'). The Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971), ordered this be followed up with a satellite containing the first animal to go into orbit. This had to be done in just over a month, to coincide with the fortieth anniversary of the October Revolution, which had seen the Communists win power in Russia. Soviet scientists did not have time to design a capsule that would return to Earth, and nor would it be big enough for two dogs. Rather, Sputnik 2 was a one-way trip for a single mongrel called Laika (whose name meant 'Barker').
In the medieval and early modern period, consumption of fish was high because the Catholic Church demanded abstinence from meat during Lent and on other fast days. In Northern Europe, herring was one of the most popular fish. It was usually preserved by being salted, although it was also smoked, pickled, dried, cured and fermented. The trade in Baltic herring was particularly lucrative. In 1241, merchants from the coastal city of Lübeck, in modern-day northern Germany, formed an alliance with Hamburg, which had access to salt. This led to the Hanseatic League, a trading organization that grew to include around 200 towns and cites in Northern Europe. By the fourteenth century, the League dominated the Baltic economy, trading in not only salted herring but metals, grain, timber, textiles and furs. However, from the later fifteenth century, their power began to fade in the face of competition from other nations, and the League effectively ceased activities after 1669.