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Einstein’s Fridge: The Science of Fire, Ice and the Universe
‘Hugely readable and entertaining’ JIM AL-KHALILI‘an accessible and crystal-clear portrait of this discipline’s breadth, largely told through its history’ PHIL BALL, PHYSICS WORLD Einstein’s Fridge tells the story of how scientists uncovered the least known and yet most consequential of all the sciences, and learned to harness the power of heat and ice.The laws of thermodynamics govern everything from the behaviour of atoms to that of living cells, from the engines that power our world to the black hole at the centre of our galaxy. Not only that, but thermodynamics explains why we must eat and breathe, how the lights come on, and ultimately how the universe will end. The people who decoded its laws came from every branch of the sciences – they were engineers, physicists, chemists, biologists, cosmologists and mathematicians.Their discoveries, set over two hundred years, kick-started the industrial revolution, changed the course of world wars and informed modern understanding of black holes. This book captures the thrill of discovery and the power of revolutionary science to change the world forever.
320 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 2021
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August 9, 2021
Three Cheers For Thinking
According to Sen scientists are great guys (almost exclusively guys) and the unrecognised heroes of history (as opposed to politicians and other notables). They have revealed to us the truth about the universe and how it works. Their prophecies should be heeded. So his book is a sort of modern hagiography of the secular saints of that field which he believes is the most enduring and useful of all the sciences, namely thermodynamics. Of interest to me however are the implications of Sen’s intellectual biographies for the philosophy of science.
A great deal of practical progress has been made by being wrong. For example, one of Sen’s heroes is Nicolas Carnot, the man he considers the founder of thermodynamics. Like Newton’s theory of gravity, which is conceptually incorrect but useful in sending astronauts to the moon; and Michael Faraday’s theory of electricity, which was equally wrong, but allowed the extensive development of electric motor technology, Carnot’s theory of heat is actually incoherent. Yet his ideas form the basis for an entire science.
I think it’s important to recognise that these people were not just a bit wrong in their thinking so that a little tinkering with their ideas could correct their errors. They were fundamentally in error. Carnot’s ‘caloric’ theory of heat turned out to be nonsense. It was replaced by an entirely different conceptual description, which in turn gave way to yet further fundamental changes in thermodynamic theory. The fact that each wave of theory produced greater practical results masks the uncontested fact fact that all previous thinking was shown to be wrong in its essentials. Not just wrong in details, or wrong in the level of specificity or conceptual expression. They were completely misguided.
At least they were misguided in terms of subsequent scientific developments. Each epoch of development represented a decisive conceptual break, a discontinuity, with the past. The theories of Josiah Gibbs and Pierre Duhem, for example share almost nothing with that of Carnot. It is the case that they allow much more to be accomplished. Pragmatist philosophers would like us to believe therefore that later theories are closer to the truth of more congruent with reality than previous theories. This despite the fact that every previous conceptual expression has a view of reality that is contrary to latest thinking.
In other words, what constitutes reality is constantly changing in science. Reality is whatever we think of as reality lately. We know that this reality will not be the one that survives the next conceptual revolution. There is nothing else against which to measure our conceptions except the next set of conceptions, which will always claim authority because they produce more results. But aside from that, they have no claim at all to a better description of reality, much less the truth of those descriptions.
Sen makes his intention in re-telling the story of the development of thermodynamics clear. “This book is an argument that the history of science is the history that matters,” he says. I think he’s right. But what I find incomprehensible about the book is that he also thinks that history matters because of great minds. What clearly matters, according to his account, is not the individual minds, great or not, but the historical community of scientists and engineers within which a continuous conversation about ‘heat’ has taken place. The fact that the topic had no fixed meaning within this conversation is it’s most remarkable feature.
Thermodynamics has obviously given us power. But this power is the result of talking, not a better understanding of the universe. Arguably, given the paradoxes and inconsistencies of modern physics, our conception of the real is as primitive as that of the early Greek philosophers. Yet, Sen is keen to quote Einstein who said of thermodynamics, “It is the only physical theory of universal content, which I am convinced… will never be overthrown.” Perhaps, but doesn’t Einstein sound more than a bit like Lord Kelvin in his late 19th century pronouncement that Newtonian physics had almost completed a final description of the universe?
Regarding the Pragmatist objection that we now can do much more than we have ever done before because of our scientific knowledge: all one can say is that all the results aren’t in yet. As Sen says, “The story of thermodynamics is not only one about how humans acquire scientific knowledge, it is also about how that knowledge is shaped by and, in turn, shapes society.” He shows how scientific knowledge is achieved haphazardly, and that knowledge affects society with at least as much randomness. Yet he professes no sense of humility much less awe about our condition of fundamental ignorance. We actually have no idea what future science will reveal. But we do know based on experience that it too will remain ignorant of whatever is ‘there.’
So success is whatever passes for success. And people like Sen are there as boosters and cheerleaders. His account of scientists and their breakthroughs is at times fascinating. But his assessment of what all this thought means I find simply banal. It is only vaguely interesting that Einstein designed a safer refrigerator. There are so much more important things to say about science and scientists, don’t you think?
According to Sen scientists are great guys (almost exclusively guys) and the unrecognised heroes of history (as opposed to politicians and other notables). They have revealed to us the truth about the universe and how it works. Their prophecies should be heeded. So his book is a sort of modern hagiography of the secular saints of that field which he believes is the most enduring and useful of all the sciences, namely thermodynamics. Of interest to me however are the implications of Sen’s intellectual biographies for the philosophy of science.
A great deal of practical progress has been made by being wrong. For example, one of Sen’s heroes is Nicolas Carnot, the man he considers the founder of thermodynamics. Like Newton’s theory of gravity, which is conceptually incorrect but useful in sending astronauts to the moon; and Michael Faraday’s theory of electricity, which was equally wrong, but allowed the extensive development of electric motor technology, Carnot’s theory of heat is actually incoherent. Yet his ideas form the basis for an entire science.
I think it’s important to recognise that these people were not just a bit wrong in their thinking so that a little tinkering with their ideas could correct their errors. They were fundamentally in error. Carnot’s ‘caloric’ theory of heat turned out to be nonsense. It was replaced by an entirely different conceptual description, which in turn gave way to yet further fundamental changes in thermodynamic theory. The fact that each wave of theory produced greater practical results masks the uncontested fact fact that all previous thinking was shown to be wrong in its essentials. Not just wrong in details, or wrong in the level of specificity or conceptual expression. They were completely misguided.
At least they were misguided in terms of subsequent scientific developments. Each epoch of development represented a decisive conceptual break, a discontinuity, with the past. The theories of Josiah Gibbs and Pierre Duhem, for example share almost nothing with that of Carnot. It is the case that they allow much more to be accomplished. Pragmatist philosophers would like us to believe therefore that later theories are closer to the truth of more congruent with reality than previous theories. This despite the fact that every previous conceptual expression has a view of reality that is contrary to latest thinking.
In other words, what constitutes reality is constantly changing in science. Reality is whatever we think of as reality lately. We know that this reality will not be the one that survives the next conceptual revolution. There is nothing else against which to measure our conceptions except the next set of conceptions, which will always claim authority because they produce more results. But aside from that, they have no claim at all to a better description of reality, much less the truth of those descriptions.
Sen makes his intention in re-telling the story of the development of thermodynamics clear. “This book is an argument that the history of science is the history that matters,” he says. I think he’s right. But what I find incomprehensible about the book is that he also thinks that history matters because of great minds. What clearly matters, according to his account, is not the individual minds, great or not, but the historical community of scientists and engineers within which a continuous conversation about ‘heat’ has taken place. The fact that the topic had no fixed meaning within this conversation is it’s most remarkable feature.
Thermodynamics has obviously given us power. But this power is the result of talking, not a better understanding of the universe. Arguably, given the paradoxes and inconsistencies of modern physics, our conception of the real is as primitive as that of the early Greek philosophers. Yet, Sen is keen to quote Einstein who said of thermodynamics, “It is the only physical theory of universal content, which I am convinced… will never be overthrown.” Perhaps, but doesn’t Einstein sound more than a bit like Lord Kelvin in his late 19th century pronouncement that Newtonian physics had almost completed a final description of the universe?
Regarding the Pragmatist objection that we now can do much more than we have ever done before because of our scientific knowledge: all one can say is that all the results aren’t in yet. As Sen says, “The story of thermodynamics is not only one about how humans acquire scientific knowledge, it is also about how that knowledge is shaped by and, in turn, shapes society.” He shows how scientific knowledge is achieved haphazardly, and that knowledge affects society with at least as much randomness. Yet he professes no sense of humility much less awe about our condition of fundamental ignorance. We actually have no idea what future science will reveal. But we do know based on experience that it too will remain ignorant of whatever is ‘there.’
So success is whatever passes for success. And people like Sen are there as boosters and cheerleaders. His account of scientists and their breakthroughs is at times fascinating. But his assessment of what all this thought means I find simply banal. It is only vaguely interesting that Einstein designed a safer refrigerator. There are so much more important things to say about science and scientists, don’t you think?
April 1, 2021
In Einstein's Fridge (interesting factoid: this is at least the third popular science book to be named after Einstein's not particularly exciting refrigerator), Paul Sen has taken on a scary challenge. As Jim Al-Khalili made clear in his excellent The World According to Physics, our physical understanding of reality rests on three pillars: relativity, quantum theory and thermodynamics. But there is no doubt that the third of these, the topic of Sen's book, is a hard sell.
While it's true that these are the three pillars of physics, from the point of view of making interesting popular science, the first two might be considered pillars of gold and platinum, while the third is a pillar of salt. Relativity and quantum theory are very much of the twentieth century. They are exciting and sometimes downright weird and wonderful. Thermodynamics, by contrast, has a very Victorian feel and, well, is uninspiring. Luckily, though, thermodynamics is important enough, lying behind everything from engines and life to the arrow of time, decay and the future of the universe that in the right hands it can still be made interesting, and Sen does this well by hanging his narrative on the lives of the key characters in the history of our understanding of thermodynamics.
Some historians of science (and some scientists) get distinctly sniffy about the 'heroes of science' approach, pointing out how much every scientist builds on the work of others, and (particularly these days) science is hugely collaborative, so picking out individuals can be historically inaccurate. But to complain about this is to fail to understand how storytelling works. We need characters that we can get our heads around. Namecheck everyone and you end up with a bureaucratic document, not an engaging narrative. A good science writer like Sen can focus in on key characters without overdoing the lone genius concept.
Inevitably, we find out a lot about heat and the development of ideas on this, but by far the most interesting aspect of thermodynamics is entropy, and the book is good at explaining this and putting it into context. I think Sen stretches the thermodynamics label more than a little - applying it, for example, to Einstein's short paper extending the special theory of relativity to bring in his famous E=mc2 equation, but this is forgivable.
I have a couple of issues. One is the title. Einstein's fridge is very much a bit part player here. Dragging Einstein into the title does a disservice to the greats of thermodynamics. (The word 'thermodynamics' doesn't even appear on the cover.) I also felt at one point that Sen's narrative structure was pushed too far from reality to try to establish a neat storyline. At the end of the chapter on the wonderful James Clerk Maxwell's work on statistical mechanics, Sen claims that despite his work, Maxwell and his contemporaries 'could say why a cup of tea felt hot, but not why, when left to its own devices, it cooled down'. He does this to then be able to introduce Boltzmann's work. But in taking this line Sen assigns a naivety to Maxwell that is unfair. Sen even resorts to breaking his timeline to move Maxwell's demon later in the book, even though it would have been impossible for Maxwell to develop the concept without having a perfectly good idea of how heat is transferred from hot to cold bodies.
This may have caused me a raised eyebrow, but it didn't stop me enjoying the book. Sen has given thermodynamics the importance it deserves, along the way introducing us to some fascinating people and detail of their lives and work. Hot stuff, even if it will eventually cool to ambient temperature.
While it's true that these are the three pillars of physics, from the point of view of making interesting popular science, the first two might be considered pillars of gold and platinum, while the third is a pillar of salt. Relativity and quantum theory are very much of the twentieth century. They are exciting and sometimes downright weird and wonderful. Thermodynamics, by contrast, has a very Victorian feel and, well, is uninspiring. Luckily, though, thermodynamics is important enough, lying behind everything from engines and life to the arrow of time, decay and the future of the universe that in the right hands it can still be made interesting, and Sen does this well by hanging his narrative on the lives of the key characters in the history of our understanding of thermodynamics.
Some historians of science (and some scientists) get distinctly sniffy about the 'heroes of science' approach, pointing out how much every scientist builds on the work of others, and (particularly these days) science is hugely collaborative, so picking out individuals can be historically inaccurate. But to complain about this is to fail to understand how storytelling works. We need characters that we can get our heads around. Namecheck everyone and you end up with a bureaucratic document, not an engaging narrative. A good science writer like Sen can focus in on key characters without overdoing the lone genius concept.
Inevitably, we find out a lot about heat and the development of ideas on this, but by far the most interesting aspect of thermodynamics is entropy, and the book is good at explaining this and putting it into context. I think Sen stretches the thermodynamics label more than a little - applying it, for example, to Einstein's short paper extending the special theory of relativity to bring in his famous E=mc2 equation, but this is forgivable.
I have a couple of issues. One is the title. Einstein's fridge is very much a bit part player here. Dragging Einstein into the title does a disservice to the greats of thermodynamics. (The word 'thermodynamics' doesn't even appear on the cover.) I also felt at one point that Sen's narrative structure was pushed too far from reality to try to establish a neat storyline. At the end of the chapter on the wonderful James Clerk Maxwell's work on statistical mechanics, Sen claims that despite his work, Maxwell and his contemporaries 'could say why a cup of tea felt hot, but not why, when left to its own devices, it cooled down'. He does this to then be able to introduce Boltzmann's work. But in taking this line Sen assigns a naivety to Maxwell that is unfair. Sen even resorts to breaking his timeline to move Maxwell's demon later in the book, even though it would have been impossible for Maxwell to develop the concept without having a perfectly good idea of how heat is transferred from hot to cold bodies.
This may have caused me a raised eyebrow, but it didn't stop me enjoying the book. Sen has given thermodynamics the importance it deserves, along the way introducing us to some fascinating people and detail of their lives and work. Hot stuff, even if it will eventually cool to ambient temperature.
March 12, 2021
This was...
...I gotta be honest, this was dry.
I don't know, maybe it wasn't for me, but since Einstein's Fridge is being touted as "for fans of A Brief History of Time and How We Got to Now," I think I was expecting something a little more attention-grabbing from the get-go.
This book, in its opening chapters, purports to detail how the history of science is the history of us all, and I don't disagree! I don't disagree in the least, and I think that scientific literacy should also include an understanding of the history of science, since that makes it very clear that scientific "facts" are not the be-all end-all of truth, that new theories and ideas are being put forth constantly and paradigms are never not shifting.
But then Einstein's Fridge does just that. It's just... the history. And for someone whose biggest gripe with popsci books, especially popular physics books, is that they waste 75% of their pages on the history of physics before they get to the new, good, interesting stuff, maybe this just wasn't for me. Yes, it's deeply important to understand old concepts and why they were shifted or changed or built-upon before understanding the new stuff, and if thermodynamics is a concept that's new to you and you don't know about that wild zeroth law, then Einstein's Fridge is probably a good place to start. However, if you're already a fan of the aforementioned A Brief History of Time and How We Got to Now, then I feel I must say that Einstein's Fridge is probably a book you don't need. It's thorough, yes, incredibly so, and ties together ideas and concepts from the inception of thermodynamics to the concepts physicists are working on and with today. But I didn't find much new here, nor did I find an interesting or unique spin. It's a fine text, and an easy read with few embellishments, but if you're already a fan, you might be just fine skipping this one.
...I gotta be honest, this was dry.
I don't know, maybe it wasn't for me, but since Einstein's Fridge is being touted as "for fans of A Brief History of Time and How We Got to Now," I think I was expecting something a little more attention-grabbing from the get-go.
This book, in its opening chapters, purports to detail how the history of science is the history of us all, and I don't disagree! I don't disagree in the least, and I think that scientific literacy should also include an understanding of the history of science, since that makes it very clear that scientific "facts" are not the be-all end-all of truth, that new theories and ideas are being put forth constantly and paradigms are never not shifting.
But then Einstein's Fridge does just that. It's just... the history. And for someone whose biggest gripe with popsci books, especially popular physics books, is that they waste 75% of their pages on the history of physics before they get to the new, good, interesting stuff, maybe this just wasn't for me. Yes, it's deeply important to understand old concepts and why they were shifted or changed or built-upon before understanding the new stuff, and if thermodynamics is a concept that's new to you and you don't know about that wild zeroth law, then Einstein's Fridge is probably a good place to start. However, if you're already a fan of the aforementioned A Brief History of Time and How We Got to Now, then I feel I must say that Einstein's Fridge is probably a book you don't need. It's thorough, yes, incredibly so, and ties together ideas and concepts from the inception of thermodynamics to the concepts physicists are working on and with today. But I didn't find much new here, nor did I find an interesting or unique spin. It's a fine text, and an easy read with few embellishments, but if you're already a fan, you might be just fine skipping this one.
September 11, 2021
This book is an exception to the rule that all pop-science books are a waste of time since this book is well worth reading.
All fundamental understanding about the universe starts with hot goes to cold (the second law thermodynamics, entropy), heat gets dissipated, entropy increases overall and energy overall gets conserved (first law of thermodynamics), and the author ties those fundamental truths to quantum theory, gravitational theory, thermodynamics and information theory (‘information is physical’).
Good examples and metaphors abound within this book and for someone like me who is shaky when it comes to science this book was a worthwhile read.
All fundamental understanding about the universe starts with hot goes to cold (the second law thermodynamics, entropy), heat gets dissipated, entropy increases overall and energy overall gets conserved (first law of thermodynamics), and the author ties those fundamental truths to quantum theory, gravitational theory, thermodynamics and information theory (‘information is physical’).
Good examples and metaphors abound within this book and for someone like me who is shaky when it comes to science this book was a worthwhile read.
May 25, 2021
I liked the biographical notes. On thermodynamics, I had no problem grokking the explanations of the ‘classical’ concepts and results, possibly because I had read about them before. However, explanation of the extensions re. Information theory and the holographic principle failed to convince me. Not sure whether it’s mine or the book’s fault.
April 5, 2025
Really great review on thermodynamics and its scientists! Covers not only the science but the life of important figures that made the world as it is today.
April 22, 2021
This book is supposed to be a discussion of Thermodynamics. In the end it is more. Sen presents an entertaining history of science which goes beyond the bounds of "explaining the difference between hot and cold explains the universe." The book has a very good section on information science including sections on Claude Shannon and Alan Turing.
I will admit I have never been much interested in the origin or ending of the universe. But my brother recommended the book to me. I've read something about the theories (including the discussions of entropy here) but it is just not a subject that holds my attention. The horizon of both the creation of the universe and its end are a bit remote for me. In addition, I am a skeptic of any idea that is not subject to reversibility. If entropy is indeed the direction of the universe then how did the Big Bang happen? But again the logic here is not important. That's fine, I know a lot of people who aren't interested in thinking about the effects of changes in the tax code.
Sen has an ability to combine clarity in the discussion of the theory with insights about each of the bright people who came up with the ideas. His basic description of the elements that went into Shannon's understanding of information theory were especially interesting for me.
I will admit I have never been much interested in the origin or ending of the universe. But my brother recommended the book to me. I've read something about the theories (including the discussions of entropy here) but it is just not a subject that holds my attention. The horizon of both the creation of the universe and its end are a bit remote for me. In addition, I am a skeptic of any idea that is not subject to reversibility. If entropy is indeed the direction of the universe then how did the Big Bang happen? But again the logic here is not important. That's fine, I know a lot of people who aren't interested in thinking about the effects of changes in the tax code.
Sen has an ability to combine clarity in the discussion of the theory with insights about each of the bright people who came up with the ideas. His basic description of the elements that went into Shannon's understanding of information theory were especially interesting for me.
August 7, 2024
Sarebbero 4 stelle e mezzo perché soprattutto nell'ultima parte sembra perdere un po' di mordente, ma arrotonda per eccesso perché alcuni capitoli sono tra i meglio illustrati su questi argomenti e il legame tra le varie discipline è sempre reso molto evidente.
May 6, 2021
Titles are important, and naming things is important, as much as I don't always like to admit the value of a strong opening compared to the quality of the rest of a text. While it is true that this book could have been titled something more descriptive, like An Introduction to Thermodynamics via its History from the Industrial Age to the Present, that would have significantly shrunken its readership and appeal. Although it is worth noting that there is absolutely no discussion of the contents of Einstein's refrigerator, so if you pick up this book looking for deep insights into Einstein's psyche based on what he kept in his kitchen, I'm afraid that you'll be disappointed. Otherwise, I think you'll be anything but disappointed with Einstein's Fridge.
If I had to take a guess, I would say that there are a lot of people who could tell you something about thermodynamics, and that there are probably a fair handful of people who could tell you about the various historical figures who contributed to the discipline, but there probably are very few people who can effectively do both. That's one of the main reasons that I so thoroughly enjoyed this book. It clearly elucidated thermodynamics concepts, which might have been otherwise dull to me (I've already studied the topic), while putting them into their historical and biographical context. This is as much a history book as it is a science book, so it strongly appealed to my polymath tendencies (I should really write a post about the polymath/Renaissance Man concept). In fact, if I were going to teach an introductory course on thermodynamics, or wanted to introduce someone to the topic, I would highly recommend this book, rather than using a more traditional textbook.
Most of the book is organized in a roughly chronological fashion, with each chapter focused upon an individual who made particularly notable contributions to the field of thermodynamics, beginning with Sadi Carnot, of the eponymous Carnot Cycle (it does reference Bernoulli, which takes it as far back as the 1730s, but does not reserve a full biographical treatment of the writing of Hydrodynamica). The chapters weave the scientific discoveries and inquiries into the biographical context of the individual, and perhaps most interestingly discuss how the ideas were received, understood, and debated at the time, a context that I found especially fascinating. It is easy to look at the past, and especially the history of science, as an inevitable march towards our present understanding, but conclusions and theories that seem obvious now were once new, fledgling ideas with little evidence or support.
Einstein's Fridge stumbles a little as it gets into more recent developments that have been linked to thermodynamics, like information theory and Hawking radiation. This is partially because there is less known about these topics, as many of them are still mostly or entirely theoretical, or at least have not been supported by significant bodies of experimental evidence, and because they are still developing fields of thought. There's also the fact that many of these topics are simply a challenge to explain in approachable terms; visualizations and intuition tend to break down when confronted with the bizarreness of something like quantum field theory or singularities. Despite that, Sen gives one of the most concise and helpful explanations of the relationship between energy and information that I have ever read.
One of the ways to know how much you're enjoying a book is to examine how you feel about the approach of the end. If, as you're getting past the halfway point, you're eager to see the pages go by and get to the end, it might not be as good of a book as if you start to feel that while you don't want to slow down, you don't want the book's journey to end. I was getting just past halfway through Einstein's Fridge, thinking how much I was enjoying it and how glad I was that I still had almost half a book to go, even though it seemed chronologically like it must be approaching its conclusions, when...it ended. So while I try to find a next book as worthwhile and well-written as this one was, I highly encourage you to find a copy of Einstein's Fridge.
August 31, 2022
Albert Einstein actually did design a refrigerator. Einstein, along with former student Leo Szilard, wanted to design something that was safer than the fridges available at the time. Refrigerator pumps in the 1920s used toxic chemicals as their cooling agents, and there had been a number of cases where leaks had spewed toxic fumes into the homes of unsuspecting refrigerator owners. One family in Berlin, with several children, died in such an incident, which Sen says was the direct inspiration for Einstein and Szilard’s work.
This is just one of the stories Paul Sen uncovers in his book Einstein’s Fridge . It’s a history of the advancement of the science of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is that branch of physics involving the relationships between heat, temperature, work and energy, and the related physical properties of matter and radiation (a nod of thanks to Wikipedia).
I am pretty much a sucker for any book in the general category of the history of science or technology. If I encounter one in a bookstore I have a hard time not walking out the door with it in my shopping bag. But all these books are not created equal. For me, the best of these books have a mix that is heavier on the history, with enough of the science for the layman to understand and not become overwhelmed. Sen gets that mix just right in this book, creating what I think is an instant classic.
Sen takes us from Sadi Carnot, James Watt, and James Joule working in the days of steam engines, all the way up to Stephen Hawking and the influence of thermodynamics on his understanding of black holes and their event horizons - with plenty of stories in between.
Through those stories we follow the growth in the understanding of thermodynamics, and the wide range of impact that understanding has had. The advances in thermodynamics have influenced fields as disparate as quantum theory, information theory, relativity and genetics.
Einstein published several papers advancing theories in thermodynamics in 1903 and 1904, leading up to the publication of his special theory of relativity in 1905. In 1951 Alan Turing, starting from the laws of thermodynamics, advanced a theory to explain the genetics behind patterns in living things. His theory of morphogenesis attempts to explain how genes can induce organization among cells. It helps answer the question of why the cells of an embryo self organize to form patterns - a heart, two hands, and a head appear where there were only cells before. Discoveries at the cellular level in the twenty first century tend to show Turing’s theory is correct.
The book is sprinkled with diagrams that help to explain some of Sen’s deeper dives into science. But he manages to keep the scientific explanations mostly in layman’s terms throughout the body of the book, and provides a few appendices for those tempted to dive further.
Paul Sen has a long history of storytelling around science and technology in the world of filmmaking. His Furnace TV production studio has created a number of documentaries about scientists, engineers, and technologists which have been aired in the UK, USA, Canada and Australia. This is his first book, and he’s knocked it out of the park.
RATING: Five Stars ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐
This is just one of the stories Paul Sen uncovers in his book Einstein’s Fridge . It’s a history of the advancement of the science of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is that branch of physics involving the relationships between heat, temperature, work and energy, and the related physical properties of matter and radiation (a nod of thanks to Wikipedia).
I am pretty much a sucker for any book in the general category of the history of science or technology. If I encounter one in a bookstore I have a hard time not walking out the door with it in my shopping bag. But all these books are not created equal. For me, the best of these books have a mix that is heavier on the history, with enough of the science for the layman to understand and not become overwhelmed. Sen gets that mix just right in this book, creating what I think is an instant classic.
Sen takes us from Sadi Carnot, James Watt, and James Joule working in the days of steam engines, all the way up to Stephen Hawking and the influence of thermodynamics on his understanding of black holes and their event horizons - with plenty of stories in between.
Through those stories we follow the growth in the understanding of thermodynamics, and the wide range of impact that understanding has had. The advances in thermodynamics have influenced fields as disparate as quantum theory, information theory, relativity and genetics.
Einstein published several papers advancing theories in thermodynamics in 1903 and 1904, leading up to the publication of his special theory of relativity in 1905. In 1951 Alan Turing, starting from the laws of thermodynamics, advanced a theory to explain the genetics behind patterns in living things. His theory of morphogenesis attempts to explain how genes can induce organization among cells. It helps answer the question of why the cells of an embryo self organize to form patterns - a heart, two hands, and a head appear where there were only cells before. Discoveries at the cellular level in the twenty first century tend to show Turing’s theory is correct.
The book is sprinkled with diagrams that help to explain some of Sen’s deeper dives into science. But he manages to keep the scientific explanations mostly in layman’s terms throughout the body of the book, and provides a few appendices for those tempted to dive further.
Paul Sen has a long history of storytelling around science and technology in the world of filmmaking. His Furnace TV production studio has created a number of documentaries about scientists, engineers, and technologists which have been aired in the UK, USA, Canada and Australia. This is his first book, and he’s knocked it out of the park.
RATING: Five Stars ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐
August 6, 2022
I have read about entropy and it's implications before, but this one simplifies it in way that I can remember things for a long time to come. Yes, I found it to be the best explanation of entropy so far.
There's so much Science in this but the author keeps the language every understandable and engaging. It also contains a great deal of history, helps appreciate the importance of each step understanding our universe.
Our universe heads towards entropy away from orderliness of energy. A hurricane can destroy a house into shambles since there are more ways to disarray than harmony. If in case a hurricane builds a house, the anarchy around this house will be higher overall - victory to the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
This got me to thinking: Why is it easy for people to do wrong than right? Because there are just too many ways to error than to act virtuously.
There's so much Science in this but the author keeps the language every understandable and engaging. It also contains a great deal of history, helps appreciate the importance of each step understanding our universe.
Our universe heads towards entropy away from orderliness of energy. A hurricane can destroy a house into shambles since there are more ways to disarray than harmony. If in case a hurricane builds a house, the anarchy around this house will be higher overall - victory to the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
This got me to thinking: Why is it easy for people to do wrong than right? Because there are just too many ways to error than to act virtuously.
May 16, 2021
Thermodynamics is a field of inquiry that explores the behavior of heat. The predictions it makes are simple yet profound, and they affect every aspect of our lives.
Thermodynamics has a series of Laws. If I recall correctly, there are four of them, but the first law and second law get the most attention. The first law of Thermodynamics states that the universe's energy is constant, and the second law of Thermodynamics states that the entropy of the universe tends toward the maximum.
Paul Sen takes the story of Thermodynamics and gives it a human element by talking about the people that developed it into what it is today. In Einstein's Fridge, Sen opens with Sadi Carnot and discusses how he came up with his ideas of an ideal engine. Sen ends with the Black Hole and how it should have a temperature. Along the way, we meet luminaries like Clausius, Lord Kelvin, Charles Darwin, Helmholtz, Boltzman, and the eponymous Einstein.
Einstein's Fridge is a marvelous book. If you are interested in Physics or want to know why perpetual motion machines are impossible, this book is worth your time.
Thermodynamics has a series of Laws. If I recall correctly, there are four of them, but the first law and second law get the most attention. The first law of Thermodynamics states that the universe's energy is constant, and the second law of Thermodynamics states that the entropy of the universe tends toward the maximum.
Paul Sen takes the story of Thermodynamics and gives it a human element by talking about the people that developed it into what it is today. In Einstein's Fridge, Sen opens with Sadi Carnot and discusses how he came up with his ideas of an ideal engine. Sen ends with the Black Hole and how it should have a temperature. Along the way, we meet luminaries like Clausius, Lord Kelvin, Charles Darwin, Helmholtz, Boltzman, and the eponymous Einstein.
Einstein's Fridge is a marvelous book. If you are interested in Physics or want to know why perpetual motion machines are impossible, this book is worth your time.
December 4, 2023
Paul Sen proposes the argument that thermodynamics is the basis for everything that we do and don't know. From it's applications to machinery all the way to how it explains the way our universe functions, Sen takes you through the chronological story of how it was discovered, while throwing biographical tales of those who contributed to the field. He relates everything back to one point: Thermodynamics is the root of everything in our universe. Although this is a difficult concept to grasp, and at times I had to read sections over again, Sen uses metaphors, thought experiments, and very detailed explanations to help guide the reader through the process. I still am having a hard time grasping the connection of thermodynamics to numerically describing information, and the bridge between those two concepts and black holes is even crazier. Even with that, it was an entertaining read that everyone can take something from.
January 5, 2025
Ok so here are my thoughts:
The beginning of the book started out with improving the steam engine, and from there how the study of thermodynamics came to be.
Sen does a great job highlighting contributors to thermodynamics and how they built upon each others ideas.
I won’t lie, the middle chapters had me putting the book down a lot as I wasn’t too interested..and tbh I don’t remember a lot from chapters 9-14 ish lol. But the end chapters were very interesting, as they discussed information entropy, embryology, and black holes, and how they relate to thermodynamics.
Overall the book was very cohesive and Sen did a great job explaining each small advancement other the past two hundred years.
This book is prob another high three, so I’ll give it a 4 star. (Good reads please make half star ratings available)
The beginning of the book started out with improving the steam engine, and from there how the study of thermodynamics came to be.
Sen does a great job highlighting contributors to thermodynamics and how they built upon each others ideas.
I won’t lie, the middle chapters had me putting the book down a lot as I wasn’t too interested..and tbh I don’t remember a lot from chapters 9-14 ish lol. But the end chapters were very interesting, as they discussed information entropy, embryology, and black holes, and how they relate to thermodynamics.
Overall the book was very cohesive and Sen did a great job explaining each small advancement other the past two hundred years.
This book is prob another high three, so I’ll give it a 4 star. (Good reads please make half star ratings available)
March 26, 2023
When you wake up in the morning and say to yourself, self! I would like to understand the laws of thermodynamics just a little bit better, this is the book for you. It is not thermodynamics for dummies or thermodynamics for physics masters, but it is thermodynamics for the rest of us like Festivus. The biographies remind us that Albert Einstein, although the one of the greatest minds of his age could not even get a job as an assistant professor and that Allen Turing a hero, a genius and a visionary was wrongly disgraced for his orientation. Or that Amalie Noether became the greatest female mathematician in history with her hands tied behind her back.
August 6, 2022
A solid science book. I give it 3 ½ stars. It dragged a bit and places but I enjoyed it.
This one includes plenty of biographies of many of the brilliant people who brought us our modern understanding of thermodynamics, the dispersion of energy from a dense state to a diffuse state which is, of course, the increase of entropy. It is the very engine that drives our universe and everything in it.
Good stuff.
This one includes plenty of biographies of many of the brilliant people who brought us our modern understanding of thermodynamics, the dispersion of energy from a dense state to a diffuse state which is, of course, the increase of entropy. It is the very engine that drives our universe and everything in it.
Good stuff.
February 21, 2023
A who’s who in the history of physics breakthroughs and how their discoveries built in each other to create the next breakthrough. This book confirms to me what is suspected after reading Programming the Universe, that physics is really pretty cool and definitely want to learn more. The answers to potentially any question you ever had…
June 3, 2021
I loved thermodynamics and heat transfer as an engineering student in the early 80's, and I also like good stories about interesting people. I'm not sure the subject matter has a wide appeal, but I found it well worth my time.
September 20, 2025
Good stuff, informative without going too far to put folk off, but still covering the concepts well. And really like how he covers thermodynamics leading to progress in other fields too.
November 24, 2025
I ended up reading this since my Thermo prof quoted it in class. I chose to do an extra credit assignment from something mentioned which I am still determining.
Since, I'm coming from the perspective of a first year graduate student taking thermo, much of the science in this story was even more easy to grasp. However, I think Sen did a FANTASTIC job weaving history and science into a popular science book.
A few things stuck out to me. Notably so many scientists were sickly as children and many famous scientists published/understood scientific research papers at such young ages. It was fascinating to read about the lives and get a glimpse of their stories outside of the names in the history textbook. I may be in the top percent of students studying materials science but I am very far off from the famous people that have made significant contributions to the world of science. I can only read their stories and work my best to uncover and learn through my own research to contribute to the advancement of science and betterment of the world.
I learned quite a few things and the most interesting takeaway that thermodynamics applies to everything. From the way our cells coordinate to create patterns to black holes to the energy required to type this paragraph and upload it, the laws of thermodynamics applies to everything.
The only issue I had with this book was the small mention of women, while Boltzmanns wife was mentioned and Albert Einsteins first wife was briefly mentioned I definitely think there was more Sen could have said about speculations on what impacts wives and women have had on these scientific revelations. Sen did include Emmy Noether but there were very few mentions of others.
Otherwise, I absolutely loved this book and definitely recommend to others.
Since, I'm coming from the perspective of a first year graduate student taking thermo, much of the science in this story was even more easy to grasp. However, I think Sen did a FANTASTIC job weaving history and science into a popular science book.
A few things stuck out to me. Notably so many scientists were sickly as children and many famous scientists published/understood scientific research papers at such young ages. It was fascinating to read about the lives and get a glimpse of their stories outside of the names in the history textbook. I may be in the top percent of students studying materials science but I am very far off from the famous people that have made significant contributions to the world of science. I can only read their stories and work my best to uncover and learn through my own research to contribute to the advancement of science and betterment of the world.
I learned quite a few things and the most interesting takeaway that thermodynamics applies to everything. From the way our cells coordinate to create patterns to black holes to the energy required to type this paragraph and upload it, the laws of thermodynamics applies to everything.
The only issue I had with this book was the small mention of women, while Boltzmanns wife was mentioned and Albert Einsteins first wife was briefly mentioned I definitely think there was more Sen could have said about speculations on what impacts wives and women have had on these scientific revelations. Sen did include Emmy Noether but there were very few mentions of others.
Otherwise, I absolutely loved this book and definitely recommend to others.
July 11, 2021
Great overview unravelling the major steps and breakthroughs throughout the last two centuries to better understanding the properties of energy and temperature. It’s one of those books that can be approached as a compendium of mini biographies of famous scientists, but Sen weaves them all together in a very cohesive story. I wish I could have read this before taking certain engineering courses as I think it would have given a better appreciation of the bigger picture behind a lot of thermodynamic concepts. The eBook has a lot of great illustrations and photos that round out the overall story as well.
December 16, 2021
This book is a 3.5 for me. I studied thermo in college while getting my chemical engineering degree, and so appreciated reading the history behind the equations I cursed on a constant basis.
The first third of the book shows how the development of the steam engine drove the first law of thermodynamics, the conservation of energy. The rest of the book focuses on the more complex concept of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics. Sen mostly does a good job using analogies and metaphors to illustrate these technical concept, though I feel he reaches a bit in the last two chapters.
I will say that the title "Einstein's Fridge" felt a bit click-bait-y; the refrigerator doesn't show up until chapter 15 and is more of an interesting side story than a main driver of the book. But aside from this, the book is a well-written scientific history and does a good job of explaining the progress of the theories and the stories of the scientists who drove them. It's also a good illustration of how scientific advance is a process of incremental improvements, and how data anomalies shouldn't be shouted down because they don't fit the theory but instead embraced because they may lead to a better/more robust theory. The story of Ludwig Boltzmann illustrates this in a sad way.
The first third of the book shows how the development of the steam engine drove the first law of thermodynamics, the conservation of energy. The rest of the book focuses on the more complex concept of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics. Sen mostly does a good job using analogies and metaphors to illustrate these technical concept, though I feel he reaches a bit in the last two chapters.
I will say that the title "Einstein's Fridge" felt a bit click-bait-y; the refrigerator doesn't show up until chapter 15 and is more of an interesting side story than a main driver of the book. But aside from this, the book is a well-written scientific history and does a good job of explaining the progress of the theories and the stories of the scientists who drove them. It's also a good illustration of how scientific advance is a process of incremental improvements, and how data anomalies shouldn't be shouted down because they don't fit the theory but instead embraced because they may lead to a better/more robust theory. The story of Ludwig Boltzmann illustrates this in a sad way.
June 23, 2023
I really liked the historical aspect of this popular science book on thermodynamics: which is a surprise as I don't usually like the historical approach to learning about a topic. I must confess I have not been as enthusiastic about thermodynamics as I have about quantum theory or the big bang. I am now beginning to appreciate what I have been missing. This is a well written book that leads the reader through the history and historical figures of the science of heat, temperature and entropy. The title may be a little misleading, said fridge only makes up one part of one chapter but dont let that put you off. Humanity's grasp of these theories has changed the life expectancy of the human race from being short and brutal in the 1800s to what it is now. There are great examples on how curiosity based research can change the world: a good lesson for the politicians and holders of purse as strings of today. Perhaps the topic isn't as "sexy" as the big bang or quantum theory, but this book is well worth the read.
August 29, 2021
I wanted to give 5 stars to this book, after 30% through it, but I was at open sea with a poor internet connection so I couldn't. I had time to digest further the book, to meet such a great man as Claude Shannon, to read and reread about the extraordinary (and barely known)Rudolph Clausius, to go through some of the most amazing thought experiment in physical sciences and after completing the book it deserves the full 5 stars I planned to give at 30% reading, Paul Sen has done a marvelous job explaining thermodynamics though not a scientist himself, I can easily compare this work with the likes of Hawking and Carlo Rivolli (on popularizing science and making complex scientific concepts easy to understand).
October 15, 2024
I usually write good reviews for the books I consider Science History and this book is no exception. I found it well written and easy to read and contains a great deal of detail and explanation of many important ideas in science. Thar said, there's a giant slide towards the ridicules as the book nears the state of current theory. But what else can they say besides mainstream thinking.
I reread this book for our Science book call and agree completely with the review I wrote above. A science history is an excellent source and many "facts" become known to work. However, dogma is also so prevalent in our society that authors can't help themselves to reproduce the crap we call our current cosmologic model.
I reread this book for our Science book call and agree completely with the review I wrote above. A science history is an excellent source and many "facts" become known to work. However, dogma is also so prevalent in our society that authors can't help themselves to reproduce the crap we call our current cosmologic model.
June 4, 2022
More understanding from this book than from undergraduate thermodynamics class! I finally understand the concept of entropy, I know how much energy and entropy a bit of information has, and even how big is a bit (from the expansion in the size of the event horizon of a black hole when you throw the bit into the hole!)
Generous history of all the key scientists who founded and developed this area of science (not just Einstein), and remarkably clear description of the concepts at work!
Generous history of all the key scientists who founded and developed this area of science (not just Einstein), and remarkably clear description of the concepts at work!
September 7, 2021
A decent book, but IMO reading about thermodynamics without information theory feels like an outdated approach.
If you're interested in the topic, I'd recommend The Information by James Gleick.
If you're interested in the topic, I'd recommend The Information by James Gleick.
August 17, 2021
Very well written and easy to read book about the history of thermodynamics.
Below is a summary in Arabic.
براد أنشتاين وتاريخ علم الترموديناميك
ملخص كتاب
في كتابه الممتع والسلس بالعنوان الغريب "برّاد أنشتاين " يشرح الصحفي الشهير بول سين تاريخ علم الترموديناميك (تسمى أحياناً الميكانيكا الحرارية) منذ بداياتها أوائل القرن التاسع عشر على يد العالم الفرنسي سعدي كارنو (ليس هناك خطأ في الإسم فقد اختار والده السياسي الشهير لازار كارنو له اسم سعدي تيمناً بالشاعر الفارسي سعدي الشيرازي الذي كان لازار كارنو معجباً به) وحتى عصرنا الحاضر ونظرية الثقب الأسود على يد العبقري ستيفن هوكينغ.
(سعدي كارنو هو أيضاً عم الرئيس الفرنسي سعدي كارنو - اسمه الكامل ماري فرانسوا سعدي كارنو والذي كان رئيساً لفرنسا منذ ١٨٨٧ حتى اغتياله عام ١٨٩٤)
إذاً البداية كانت على يد الفرنسي كارنو رغم أن انكلترا كانت هي السباقة في اختراع وتصنيع المحركات البخارية (والتي كانت بالمناسبة ذات مردود منخفض جداً ونسبة الفقد فيها تصل الى ٩٠ بالمئة) ولكن الإطار الفيزيائي والرياضي لكيفية عمل هذه المحركات لم يكن مفهوماً بشكل جيد حتى أتى كارنو ليشرح أنه في أي نظام لا يمكن انتاج عمل مفيد إذا لم يحصل تبادل حراري بين مصدر حراري ساخن و خزان حراري (sink) بارد في دورة حرارية عرفت بإسم دورة كارنو (Carnot cycle) ليضع المعادلات الرياضية الناظمة لعمل هذا المحرك وليبرهن أن العمل المفيد الناتج عن هذا المحرك الحراري يتناسب طرداً مع الفرق في درجة الحرارة بين المنبع الساخن ولنسمها د١ والخزان البارد ولنسمها د٢.
كان سعدي تلميذاً نبيهاً وعلى درجة عالية من الذكاء فقد دخل مدرسة البوليتكنيك الشهيرة في عمر ١٦ سنة وتخرج منها بعد دراسة الفيزياء والرياضيات على يد كبار العلماء مثل أمبير ولاغرانج وغي لوساك وبواسون وغيرهم.
على يد كارنو ظهرت فكرة انحفاظ الطاقة (energy conservation) للمرة الأولى وإن لم يكن ذلك بالوضوح الكافي فيزيائياً أو رياضياً وبعد وفاة كارنو المأساوية عن عمر ٣٦ سنة (أصيب بأزمة نفسية دخل على اثرها المصحة ليصاب هناك بالكوليرا ويموت على إثرها) تابع أفكاره الفيزيائي الألماني كلاوسيوس الذي وضّح فكرة انحفاظ الطاقة والتي أسست للقانون الأول في الترموديناميك والذي يقول أن الطاقة لا تفنى ولا تخلق من العدم بمعنى أن كل ما نراه حولنا من نظم ميكانيكية وحرارية إنما تقوم بتحويل الطاقة من شكل إلى آخر فالمحرك الكهربائي يحول الطاقة الكهربائية إلى طاقة حركية والدينامو يحول الطاقة الحركية إلى كهربائية وهكذا.
بعد كلاوسيوس استلم العبقري بولتزمان المشعل وأدخل مفاهيم الفيزياء الإحصائية (statistical physics ) لدراسة الترموديناميك حيث يمكن استنتاج الخواص العامة الماكروسكوبية لجسم ما عن طريق تطبيق قوانين الإحصاء والاحتمالات على الجزيئات الميكروسكوبية المكونة لهذا الجسم وكذلك وضع بولتزمان الصيغة الرياضية لمفهوم الأنتروبي (entropy) الغامض والهام في مجال الترموديناميك والذي يمكن ربطه بكمية الفوضى في جملة ما ونزوع أي جملة فيزيائية نحو التجانس فحين نضع الكريما في فنجان القهوة نجد أنها تنتشر وتتوزع بشكل متجانس مع القهوة ولا تبقى معزولة عنها !
مقاربة بولتزمان الاحصائية لم تنل موافقة معظم الفيزيائيين المعاصرين وأثر ذلك على نفسيته وفي النهاية أقدم على الانتحار خلال عطلة له مع عائلته.
الإنتروبي هي أساس القانون الثاني للترموديناميك والذي يقول أن الإنتروبي تزداد بشكل مستمر في أية جملة فيزيائية (هناك نتيجة لهذا القانون تسمى أحياناً القانون الثالث للترموديناميك والتي تقول أن الإنتروبي تصبح ثابتة عند درجة حرارة الصفر المطلق أو صفر كالفين وتساوي حوالي -٢٧٣ درجة مئوية).
يتابع الكتاب بعدها وصف تطور الترموديناميك وارتباطه بباقي فروع الفيزياء ولا سيما فيزياء الجسيمات وفيزياء الكم ويروي عن انجازات العالم السكوتلندي جيمس ماكسويل في مجال الترموديناميك قبل انتقاله الى مجال الكهرومغناطيسية واكتشافه لمعادلات ماكسويل الشهيرة.
ويقف المؤلف أيضاً عند محطة هامة من تاريخ الترموديناميك وارتباطه بنظرية المعلومات على يد المهندس والرياضي الأميركي كلود شانون وكيف أن قياس كمية المعلومات كلوغاريتم لتابع الاحتمال مرتبط بشكلٍ جذري مع مفهوم الإنتروبي في الترموديناميك.
في الفصول الأخيرة يتحدث المؤلف عن اسهامات آينشتاين في مجال الترموديناميك والحركة البراونية والتي لا يعرفها معظم الناس بسبب ارتباط شهرته بنظريتي النسبية الخاصة والعامة والتي غيرت فهم العلم لمفاهيم الزمن والفضاء الثلاثي الأبعاد قبل أن ينهي كتابه بالحديث عن ستيفن هوكينغ و موضوع أفق الحدث (event horizon) والذي يمكن تعريفه بأنه المنطقة الحدودية حوالي الثقب الأسود والتي لا يستطيع الضوء تجاوزها بسبب الجاذبية الهائلة في مركز الثقب الأسود.
عنوان الكتاب "براد آينشتاين" قد لا يكون موفقاً بالنسبة لمحتويات الكتاب ولكنه عنوان مثير يدفع القارىء لشراء الكتاب فبرّاد أنشتاين لا يحتوي على لحم أو جبنة أو مرتديلا ولكنه يروي بشكل ممتع وسهل تاريخ علم الترموديناميك على امتداد القرنين الماضيين.
Below is a summary in Arabic.
براد أنشتاين وتاريخ علم الترموديناميك
ملخص كتاب
في كتابه الممتع والسلس بالعنوان الغريب "برّاد أنشتاين " يشرح الصحفي الشهير بول سين تاريخ علم الترموديناميك (تسمى أحياناً الميكانيكا الحرارية) منذ بداياتها أوائل القرن التاسع عشر على يد العالم الفرنسي سعدي كارنو (ليس هناك خطأ في الإسم فقد اختار والده السياسي الشهير لازار كارنو له اسم سعدي تيمناً بالشاعر الفارسي سعدي الشيرازي الذي كان لازار كارنو معجباً به) وحتى عصرنا الحاضر ونظرية الثقب الأسود على يد العبقري ستيفن هوكينغ.
(سعدي كارنو هو أيضاً عم الرئيس الفرنسي سعدي كارنو - اسمه الكامل ماري فرانسوا سعدي كارنو والذي كان رئيساً لفرنسا منذ ١٨٨٧ حتى اغتياله عام ١٨٩٤)
إذاً البداية كانت على يد الفرنسي كارنو رغم أن انكلترا كانت هي السباقة في اختراع وتصنيع المحركات البخارية (والتي كانت بالمناسبة ذات مردود منخفض جداً ونسبة الفقد فيها تصل الى ٩٠ بالمئة) ولكن الإطار الفيزيائي والرياضي لكيفية عمل هذه المحركات لم يكن مفهوماً بشكل جيد حتى أتى كارنو ليشرح أنه في أي نظام لا يمكن انتاج عمل مفيد إذا لم يحصل تبادل حراري بين مصدر حراري ساخن و خزان حراري (sink) بارد في دورة حرارية عرفت بإسم دورة كارنو (Carnot cycle) ليضع المعادلات الرياضية الناظمة لعمل هذا المحرك وليبرهن أن العمل المفيد الناتج عن هذا المحرك الحراري يتناسب طرداً مع الفرق في درجة الحرارة بين المنبع الساخن ولنسمها د١ والخزان البارد ولنسمها د٢.
كان سعدي تلميذاً نبيهاً وعلى درجة عالية من الذكاء فقد دخل مدرسة البوليتكنيك الشهيرة في عمر ١٦ سنة وتخرج منها بعد دراسة الفيزياء والرياضيات على يد كبار العلماء مثل أمبير ولاغرانج وغي لوساك وبواسون وغيرهم.
على يد كارنو ظهرت فكرة انحفاظ الطاقة (energy conservation) للمرة الأولى وإن لم يكن ذلك بالوضوح الكافي فيزيائياً أو رياضياً وبعد وفاة كارنو المأساوية عن عمر ٣٦ سنة (أصيب بأزمة نفسية دخل على اثرها المصحة ليصاب هناك بالكوليرا ويموت على إثرها) تابع أفكاره الفيزيائي الألماني كلاوسيوس الذي وضّح فكرة انحفاظ الطاقة والتي أسست للقانون الأول في الترموديناميك والذي يقول أن الطاقة لا تفنى ولا تخلق من العدم بمعنى أن كل ما نراه حولنا من نظم ميكانيكية وحرارية إنما تقوم بتحويل الطاقة من شكل إلى آخر فالمحرك الكهربائي يحول الطاقة الكهربائية إلى طاقة حركية والدينامو يحول الطاقة الحركية إلى كهربائية وهكذا.
بعد كلاوسيوس استلم العبقري بولتزمان المشعل وأدخل مفاهيم الفيزياء الإحصائية (statistical physics ) لدراسة الترموديناميك حيث يمكن استنتاج الخواص العامة الماكروسكوبية لجسم ما عن طريق تطبيق قوانين الإحصاء والاحتمالات على الجزيئات الميكروسكوبية المكونة لهذا الجسم وكذلك وضع بولتزمان الصيغة الرياضية لمفهوم الأنتروبي (entropy) الغامض والهام في مجال الترموديناميك والذي يمكن ربطه بكمية الفوضى في جملة ما ونزوع أي جملة فيزيائية نحو التجانس فحين نضع الكريما في فنجان القهوة نجد أنها تنتشر وتتوزع بشكل متجانس مع القهوة ولا تبقى معزولة عنها !
مقاربة بولتزمان الاحصائية لم تنل موافقة معظم الفيزيائيين المعاصرين وأثر ذلك على نفسيته وفي النهاية أقدم على الانتحار خلال عطلة له مع عائلته.
الإنتروبي هي أساس القانون الثاني للترموديناميك والذي يقول أن الإنتروبي تزداد بشكل مستمر في أية جملة فيزيائية (هناك نتيجة لهذا القانون تسمى أحياناً القانون الثالث للترموديناميك والتي تقول أن الإنتروبي تصبح ثابتة عند درجة حرارة الصفر المطلق أو صفر كالفين وتساوي حوالي -٢٧٣ درجة مئوية).
يتابع الكتاب بعدها وصف تطور الترموديناميك وارتباطه بباقي فروع الفيزياء ولا سيما فيزياء الجسيمات وفيزياء الكم ويروي عن انجازات العالم السكوتلندي جيمس ماكسويل في مجال الترموديناميك قبل انتقاله الى مجال الكهرومغناطيسية واكتشافه لمعادلات ماكسويل الشهيرة.
ويقف المؤلف أيضاً عند محطة هامة من تاريخ الترموديناميك وارتباطه بنظرية المعلومات على يد المهندس والرياضي الأميركي كلود شانون وكيف أن قياس كمية المعلومات كلوغاريتم لتابع الاحتمال مرتبط بشكلٍ جذري مع مفهوم الإنتروبي في الترموديناميك.
في الفصول الأخيرة يتحدث المؤلف عن اسهامات آينشتاين في مجال الترموديناميك والحركة البراونية والتي لا يعرفها معظم الناس بسبب ارتباط شهرته بنظريتي النسبية الخاصة والعامة والتي غيرت فهم العلم لمفاهيم الزمن والفضاء الثلاثي الأبعاد قبل أن ينهي كتابه بالحديث عن ستيفن هوكينغ و موضوع أفق الحدث (event horizon) والذي يمكن تعريفه بأنه المنطقة الحدودية حوالي الثقب الأسود والتي لا يستطيع الضوء تجاوزها بسبب الجاذبية الهائلة في مركز الثقب الأسود.
عنوان الكتاب "براد آينشتاين" قد لا يكون موفقاً بالنسبة لمحتويات الكتاب ولكنه عنوان مثير يدفع القارىء لشراء الكتاب فبرّاد أنشتاين لا يحتوي على لحم أو جبنة أو مرتديلا ولكنه يروي بشكل ممتع وسهل تاريخ علم الترموديناميك على امتداد القرنين الماضيين.
October 19, 2022
The book’s theme is that energy/heat in the universe moves from a high, concentrated (low entropy) energy state to a low, dispersed (high entropy) energy state. Energy in other words flows from a high to low gradient.*
This point got sidetracked when Sen discussed heat/energy in terms of order and organization and the movement from low entropy ordered-organized state (like a cup or egg shell) to a higher entropy, disordered-disorganized state. That there is order and organization in one state and not the other is clear, but there is no inevitability of movement from the former to the latter as there is with the overall notion of entropy (the movement of energy from high to low) because a cup or egg need not break. And in accounting for the universe’s origins from a high energy/low entropy state to a low energy/high entropy state, how is it that a pre-big bang condition might be considered to be a highly ordered-organized (low entropy) state when it seems it is exactly the opposite: a concentration of unhappy energetics that necessitate an explosion?
Early on in the book, I thought Sen’s definition of entropy as a measure of dispersed heat suggested a good, generic definition of entropy. Concentrated heat/energy is low entropy and dispersed heat/energy is high entropy. This avoids the ordered, organized issue and preserves the energy gradient issue of high-to-low movement. It’s also directly consistent with the second law of thermodynamics.
I didn’t understand his last chapter(s) on black hole radiation. Sen’s focus is on the Hawking debate with his contemporaries about whether black holes radiate energy. But left unaddressed is, as in a pre-big bang scenario, whether black holes, as intense gravitationally condensed bodies of energy-mass, are full of high temperature/heat. Following the logic of mass-energy pulled toward a gravitational center, would there not be more than intense amounts of heat involved, even if gravity prevents its explosive escape? (Side questions; Why does a pre-big bang situation result in an explosion whereas a Black Hole does not?** Is most energy/heat expended prior to entry into a black hole?)
*Toward the end of the book, Sen refers to “the entropy” of this and that as if it is a single state, which is confusing as entropy is a gradation of energy, from much to less, to little.
**The New York Times (October 11, 2022) Science Time section had an article (Weird and Magical) about black holes. In discussing Hawking, the writer of this piece states that "over eons a black hole would leak energy and subatomic particles, shrink, grow increasingly hot and finally explode." this is the first time I've seen someone state that a black hole explodes.
This point got sidetracked when Sen discussed heat/energy in terms of order and organization and the movement from low entropy ordered-organized state (like a cup or egg shell) to a higher entropy, disordered-disorganized state. That there is order and organization in one state and not the other is clear, but there is no inevitability of movement from the former to the latter as there is with the overall notion of entropy (the movement of energy from high to low) because a cup or egg need not break. And in accounting for the universe’s origins from a high energy/low entropy state to a low energy/high entropy state, how is it that a pre-big bang condition might be considered to be a highly ordered-organized (low entropy) state when it seems it is exactly the opposite: a concentration of unhappy energetics that necessitate an explosion?
Early on in the book, I thought Sen’s definition of entropy as a measure of dispersed heat suggested a good, generic definition of entropy. Concentrated heat/energy is low entropy and dispersed heat/energy is high entropy. This avoids the ordered, organized issue and preserves the energy gradient issue of high-to-low movement. It’s also directly consistent with the second law of thermodynamics.
I didn’t understand his last chapter(s) on black hole radiation. Sen’s focus is on the Hawking debate with his contemporaries about whether black holes radiate energy. But left unaddressed is, as in a pre-big bang scenario, whether black holes, as intense gravitationally condensed bodies of energy-mass, are full of high temperature/heat. Following the logic of mass-energy pulled toward a gravitational center, would there not be more than intense amounts of heat involved, even if gravity prevents its explosive escape? (Side questions; Why does a pre-big bang situation result in an explosion whereas a Black Hole does not?** Is most energy/heat expended prior to entry into a black hole?)
*Toward the end of the book, Sen refers to “the entropy” of this and that as if it is a single state, which is confusing as entropy is a gradation of energy, from much to less, to little.
**The New York Times (October 11, 2022) Science Time section had an article (Weird and Magical) about black holes. In discussing Hawking, the writer of this piece states that "over eons a black hole would leak energy and subatomic particles, shrink, grow increasingly hot and finally explode." this is the first time I've seen someone state that a black hole explodes.
March 18, 2021
Paul Sen has created a fascinating book discussing the history of physics from the mid-19th century to the present as he takes the reader on a journey through the development of the field of thermodynamics.
During our journey we meet men and women who shaped this new field of study. Some of those we meet are well-known (e.g. James Watt), some are well-known for their contributions in other fields (e.g. Alan Turing), and some are more obscure (e.g. Emmy Noether). Regardless of their reputation, each contributed significantly to the body of knowledge we now know as thermodynamics.
Focusing on the people, the book is not a mathematical monograph, but uses a series of thought experiments to help his readers understand the growth of this subfield of physics. It was interesting how new ideas grew upon each other and, occasionally, folded back on an earlier researcher to again further the world’s understanding of the relationship between heat and cold. The book will be appreciated by anyone with a basic high school or college freshman physics course under their belt.
Two notes found in the Epilogue of the book help the reader understand the author's intention of writing this work:
At its heart, this book is a celebration that between 1850 and today the science of heat has played a vital role in promoting the greatest improvement in the human condition in our species’ entire history.
-----------------------------------
The main obstacle to dealing with climate change isn’t scientific. Instead, it’s political and emotional. While some refuse to accept that the problem exists, others refuse to accept the solutions. That brings me back to why I wanted to write this book. Now, more than ever, it’s important that all of us have a basic grasp of the science of heat, so that we can make sensible and informed decisions about how best to ensure progress while preserving or improving living conditions fo fellow humans without ruining the environment. Should we commit to nuclear energy? Should we drive electric cars? How much tax should we pay on petrol, and how much should we subsidize wind farms? We will be in no position to answer these vitally important questions unless we have a basic understanding of the laws of thermodynamics.
Weaving together Carnot’s basic understanding of heat, Turing's application of information theory and embryology, and Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, as well as the work of many others, I give the book five stars.
_____________
This review is based on a free electronic copy provided by the publisher for the purpose of creating this review. The opinions are mine alone.
During our journey we meet men and women who shaped this new field of study. Some of those we meet are well-known (e.g. James Watt), some are well-known for their contributions in other fields (e.g. Alan Turing), and some are more obscure (e.g. Emmy Noether). Regardless of their reputation, each contributed significantly to the body of knowledge we now know as thermodynamics.
Focusing on the people, the book is not a mathematical monograph, but uses a series of thought experiments to help his readers understand the growth of this subfield of physics. It was interesting how new ideas grew upon each other and, occasionally, folded back on an earlier researcher to again further the world’s understanding of the relationship between heat and cold. The book will be appreciated by anyone with a basic high school or college freshman physics course under their belt.
Two notes found in the Epilogue of the book help the reader understand the author's intention of writing this work:
At its heart, this book is a celebration that between 1850 and today the science of heat has played a vital role in promoting the greatest improvement in the human condition in our species’ entire history.
-----------------------------------
The main obstacle to dealing with climate change isn’t scientific. Instead, it’s political and emotional. While some refuse to accept that the problem exists, others refuse to accept the solutions. That brings me back to why I wanted to write this book. Now, more than ever, it’s important that all of us have a basic grasp of the science of heat, so that we can make sensible and informed decisions about how best to ensure progress while preserving or improving living conditions fo fellow humans without ruining the environment. Should we commit to nuclear energy? Should we drive electric cars? How much tax should we pay on petrol, and how much should we subsidize wind farms? We will be in no position to answer these vitally important questions unless we have a basic understanding of the laws of thermodynamics.
Weaving together Carnot’s basic understanding of heat, Turing's application of information theory and embryology, and Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, as well as the work of many others, I give the book five stars.
_____________
This review is based on a free electronic copy provided by the publisher for the purpose of creating this review. The opinions are mine alone.
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