Enslaved, Indentured, Free: Five Black Women on the Upper Mississippi, 1800–1850

by Mary Elise Antoine

The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 made slavery illegal in the territory that would later become Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. However, many Black individuals’ rights were denied by white enslavers who continued to hold them captive in the territory well into the nineteenth century. Set in this period of American history, Enslaved, Indentured, Free shines a light on five extraordinary Black women—Marianne, Mariah, Patsey, Rachel, and Courtney—whose lives intersected in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin.

Focusing on these five women, Mary Elise Antoine explores the history of slavery in the Upper Mississippi River Valley, relying on legal documents, military records, court transcripts, and personal correspondence. Whether through perseverance, self-purchase, or freedom suits—including one suit that was used as precedent in Dred and Harriet Scott’s freedom suits years later—each of these women ultimately secured her freedom, thanks in part to the bonds they forged with one another.

Genres: History, Nonfiction

240 pages, Paperback

Published October 7, 2022

Reviews

[Lisa · Rating 5 out of 5]

Using public records available, Mary Elise Antoine weaves together a story of early settlement on the upper Mississippi, focused on Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. Beginning with Marianne, a freeborn black woman who remained free, the author researched and shares about the lives of four other women whose lives touched.
Marianne was born in the country along the southern Mississippi in the mid eighteenth century, and married three times to French traders. Her second husband relocated to Prairie du Chien. She was a unique figure who owned land, farmed, bore thirteen children and practiced healing ways. The author notes that Prairie du Chien was already diverse with mixed cultures. “In the early nineteenth century, race did not automatically exclude people of color from various institutions on the prairie. However, when white American men brought people of African heritage with them to the prairie, they also brought racial inequality,” she writes.
The second subject, Mariah, was brought to Prairie du Chien in 1816, one of 200 enslaved, indentured, or hired working people brought to the area between 1816 and 1845, almost all by members of the US Army. Because slavery was illegal in Illinois Territory, Mariah’s owner changed the sixteen-year-old’s legal status to indentured. Mariah later married a young soldier, though was “rented” by her owner to others. When her owner left the area before her servitude was concluded, he forced her to pay the rest of her contract in order to claim her freedom. She and her husband divorced in 1839; she subsequently remarried and moved to a home on land owned by Marianne.
A third woman, Patsey, was brought to the area by the Indian agent in 1829. Again, the agent forced Patsey into indentured servitude to get around the law; the indentured work-around was apparently a common ruse, legally recorded wherever the family moved, as well as moving their slaves in an out of territory where slavery was illegal, or calling them variably servant or slave. Patsey had children who were also indentured.
Courtney was brought to Prairie du Chien as a servant for an army captain who was allowed to claim her as an expense to his account, asking a few dollars a month compensation, her clothing and one ration of food per day. He also provided a description: five foot-four, black skin, eyes and hair. This girl was eventually sold several times and moved to different locations in the area, even leaving her son in slavery to one family. She finally was moved to St. Louis.
Rachel had been purchased in St. Louis for a soldier with a young family stationed in Prairie du Chien. When no longer needed, she was returned to St. Louis and sold again, but this time Rachel took advantage of a Missouri law that allowed enslaved persons to sue for their freedom based on prior residence in a free territory. she filed suit in 1834 which was rejected for a word choice, being called a servant by the soldier. With the help of her attorney, she appealed. During the time, the attorney also filed a petition for Courtney, both of which were successful in 1836. Courtney and her son returned to Prairie du Chien where she married and went to live on land owned by Marianne.
The text is somewhat dry and filled with much speculation as well as factual information derived from public records as there are little or no personal records from these women. The diligent research was excellent. Events of the time were overlaid to provide some color. Laid out in seven chapters, five for the women portrayed and two others describing circumstances and life at the time, the book is a lively portrayal of life on the new frontier. Images of noted individuals, places, and records and notes accompanying the text provide a nice variation.

[Mollie · Rating 4 out of 5]

While somewhat laborious to read, the documentation of these five women’s life experiences added a new view for me as a new Wisconsin resident. I had not considered the pervasiveness of slavery in the north nor the hypocrisy of the military and government in turning a blind eye to this practice and deceiving many people of color of their rights and freedoms. The sleight of hand when bringing former slaves to this area and then having the often illiterate sign papers making them indentured for life was also common. Their lives though identified differently legally were very much the same in terms of freedom and opportunity. They were slaves. The bright spot was seen as a small community of free black persons and families developed and supported one another. An interesting and sad view of our history.

[Nic · Rating 5 out of 5]

Joseph's 1839 letter reflects the attitude within the US military that officers could hold enslaved people in free territory with impunity. 181

This little nugget of history wasn't on my radar. The library in my little town had been closed while they moved into our new, freshly built library, and I had to visit the library in a neighboring town. This library had a display shelf of new books and this book caught my eye. We all know what a terrible injustice and crime the enslavement of Africans was, but the manner in which this book presents the evidence, in the harsh reality of historical documents solidifies the wrong, especially when viewing actual documents of sales.

For example, this, referring to Rachel and her newborn baby, James Henry. Since James Henry was born in WI he was "free" under WI rules; however, no one seemed to abide by these rules. Since WI was a free state, and there were no plantations, a newborn baby was more of a hindrance than an asset. Thomas may have gone to Savage and Bostwick to sell Rachel and her son, or he may have decided to have Rachel sold at one of the other slave markets that operated on various street corners. By whatever means, Thomas found a buyer for Rachel and James Henry in Joseph Klunk. On June 18, 1834, Joseph signed the paperwork making official his purchase of "Rachel & child. Slaves for life." 126

Pictures of the original documents are included. One way around the law was to have "indentured servants" instead of slaves. This also occurred in surrounding states, where people should have been free.

To conform to Illinois law while still keeping Patsey and London in servitude within his household, Joseph circumvented the law by declaring Patsey and London free and then having them sign an indenture...The indenture continued with details as to how London was to conduct himself and obey Joseph during the length of his indenture, which would almost certainly last his lifetime...Joseph also recorded an indenture with Patsey, whom he described as "a free negro Girl of colour about seventeen years of age." Like London, Patsey was made to "place and bind herself unto the said Joseph M. Street...for and during the term of fifty years." Joseph then ordered Patsey to place an X on the indenture. In so doing, Patsey bound herself...For each "breach or failure," Joseph could add one year to her service...According to Section VI of the Illinois Constitution, children of indentured servants were also indentured...Patsey and her children were all under Joseph's control. John rented Dick out to work in lead mines in Missouri, an action that went against Illinois law, which stated that indentured servants could not be taken out of the state. In early 1820, Dick escaped, and John placed an ad in the Shawneetown newspaper...What became of Dick is not known, but as he was likely the father of Charles, who was born in 1822, Dick must have been returned to John in Shawneetown before that date. Patsey and her two living children, Betsey and Charles, continued to live in the Street household, all indentured and thus bound to Joseph. 53-57

Unfortunately, I learned, the phrase "to be sold down river" comes from slavery sales. If you were held in the North, there was more hope that you could somehow gain your ordained freedom. However, if you were "sold down river" you were sent deeper into slave territory where hope was lost. Working on plantations was also a much harsher life for Africans. Being "sold down river", for a black woman selected as attractive, often meant becoming a sex slave.

It also becomes apparent how slave owners, and the military, gained wealth through selling and renting their slaves. Also, the military enlisted could list their "servants" on their pay bills and were reimbursed for each servant. In some cases, they were given pay, which was supposed to be passed along to the servants, but it was not, it was pocketed, of course. Africans helped the military men, and their wives, to live more comfortably while at their posts. African labor freed up the military, and their families, so they could "conquer" the West, relocate Native Americans, profit, and expand. Some Africans were able to escape, in states where they should have been free, to join up with Native American tribes, where they were welcomed.

This book is rich in local history and historical documents. There are also included paintings, for example Fort Snelling, circa 1850, painted by Edward K. Thomas, a sergeant stationed at Fort Snelling. To the far left below the horizon are the two stone houses built for Lieutenant Nathan Clark and Captain John Spotswood Garland. 96. There are also two teepees, to the left, in the forefront of this same painting, beautifully rendered.

Opening this book is stepping back in time. Amazingly, the five women presented here, did all manage to finally gain their freedom. I always regret that I never learned much about this history in school. It would be wonderful if this text could be included in Wisconsin History studies for school kids. Thanks to Mary Elise Antoine for consolidating and preserving this important history.

[Jim Gallen · Rating 5 out of 5]

Being, in the first half of the nineteenth century, a remote settlement with an Indian Agency, a U. S. Factory and military presence, Prairie du Chien provides a case study of the relationship of enslaved, indentured and free in an environment in which laws were interpreted, circumvented and ignored. Historian Mary Elise Antoine has drawn on the recorded lives of five black women brought to the Upper Mississippi to craft an account of blacks’ lives on the frontier.

Though her origins are hidden in the mists of time, Marianne Labuche seems to have been born in Louisiana around 1769, probably in New Orleans. She migrated up river, stopping at Cahokia, Illinois for a while, before establishing herself as a wife and key figure on the Prairie in 1794. Valued as a midwife and for her skill with tonics, Marianne and her large family, twelve surviving children, would be anchors of the Prairie. Although her death is undocumented, family tradition dates it in 1833.

Mariah was born a slave in Maryland about 1800. She arrived at Prairie in 1816, indentured to new U. S. Factor, John W. Johnson. Living out her indenture and buying her freedom in 1829, she married and mothered a family through her last census in 1870.

Born enslaved in Kentucky in 1800, Patsey came to the Prairie in 1828 as indentured servant to the wife of children of U. S. Indian agent Joseph Montfort Street, in whose service she remained until 1867. Patsey followed the Street family around, married and mothered sons who served in the Union Army during the Civil War.

Courtney, born an enslaved native of Virginia, followed her enslaver, Major John Spotswood Garland, to Prairie du Chien in 1829 when he was assigned to oversee the construction of new barracks. Rachel was purchased by Lt. Thomas Stockton in 1827 and brought to serve him on the Prairie and at Fort Snelling. The unique accomplishments of these women are their successful suits for freedom.

Author Antione skillfully weaves the stories of these five women into a broader narrative of life in Prairie du Chien in the first half of the 19th Century and the status of the enslaved during that era. She extends the tales into a general history of the Upper Mississippi and an introduction to the freedom suits filed by enslaved, largely in the St. Louis, Missouri Circuit Court. I find this personally interesting because a monument was recently erected to the plaintiffs of such suits outside the current St. Louis Courthouse and a statue of Dred and Harriet Scott stands by the east entrance to the Old Courthouse where their trial took place. Antoine demonstrates that, even in the Northwest Territory, Michigan Territory and State of Wisconsin, of which the Prairie was successively a part, where slavery was unlawful, it remained a part of life. Enslavers passing through, on special assignment or just beyond the reach of the law retained their property. Conversion of slaves into long term indentures preserved the fact of slavery while circumventing its prohibition. The accounts of the machinations by which servants were retained reveals schemes more nuanced than presented in my other readings. The reference of city slavery on pages 127 and 128 bring to mind an observation I recently heard that slavery was a range of relationships over time and place, not the uniform institution generally understood . Some names are recognizable, most prominently Zachary Taylor.

Lacking writings from her subjects themselves, Antoine gleans her material from public, church and census records, court and land documents and a host of secondary sources. This slim volume is well documented, with 24 pages of notes, more than one for every ten pages of text. This is history, not historical fiction. There are facts, “In the indenture of April 11, 1816, Mariah became indentured to John”; informed conjecture “Though Courtney was an enslaved person, John may not have wanted to disclose that fact when he was in Detroit”; but neither words are placed in individuals’ mouths nor motives in their minds. Antoine’s writing style reminds me of Carl Ekberg’s in his classic “Colonial Ste. Genevieve: An Adventure on the Mississippi Frontier” (see my review).

“Enslaved, Indentured and Free” appeals to a variety of audiences. It provides insights into non-plantation slavery and its modifications. Students of the Upper Mississippi will learn much about its inhabitants, but black and white, from these pages. Genealogists may even find some relatives mentioned. I think I found at least one. If you fit into any of these interest groups, you will find “Enslaved, Indentured and Free” to be a worthwhile read.

I did receive a free copy of this book without an obligation to post a review.

[Critter · Rating 5 out of 5]

I would like to thank Wisconsin Historical Society Press for providing me with an ARC.

This book has great research and offers some really interesting looks into the lives of the women in this book. It also shows life for black women in the U.S. during this time period and some of the ways that it took. I think this book provides some great insight into the period and has interesting, if difficult to read, information in it.

[Janilyn Kocher · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is such a wealth of information as well as such an educational read. I had no idea there were that many enslaved, free, or indentured blacks in the early Wisconsin territory.
I liked how the author tied in the people with other events and situations, threads I was not aware.
A great addition to Midwestern history.
Thanks to Edelweiss and Wisconsin Historical Society Press for the digital copy.

[Laurie · Rating 5 out of 5]

Wonderful, informative elaboration on the early 19th century history of Prairie du Chien WI, and the policy regarding enslaved persons in the Wisconsin Territory. In a sad, but true history, it’s a very well-documented work.

[Jill · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book is essential reading for anyone interested in Wisconsin history. The writing was a bit dry and a little chronologically confusing, but the narratives the author uncovered about these five women is astounding and inspiring.