The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe

by Brian P. Levack

This famous book focuses on the great age of witch-hunting in Europe (and colonial America) between 1450 and 1750. It examines why the witch-trials took place; how many trials and victims there were, and where; why their incidence was so uneven in Europe; who accused whom; and why witch-hunting eventually petered out. In the process it illuminates the social, economic and political history of early modern Europe, and in particular the position of women within it. For this Second Edition, Brian Levack has revised his text to take account of scholarship since 1987. The notes and references have been greatly expanded, and the entire text reset.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Religion, Witches, Witchcraft, European History, Historical

312 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1984

About the author

Brian Levack is John E. Green Regents Professor in History and Distinguished Teaching Professor at the University of Texas at Austin. The winner of several teaching awards, Levack offers a wide variety of courses on early modern British and European history, legal history, and the history of witchcraft. For eight years he served as the chair of his department. His books include The Civil Lawyers in England, 1603-1641: A Political Study(1973), The Formation of the British State: England, Scotland and the Union, 1603-1707(1987); The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe (3rd edition, 2006), which has been translated into eight languages; and Witch-Hunting in Scotland: Law, Politics, and Religion(2008). His newest book is The Devil Within: Possessions and Exorcism in the Christian West.

Reviews

[Katie · Rating 3 out of 5]

This is a nice & sober recounting of a subject that's often pretty sensationalist. Levack argues that the two long-term causes of the rise of witchcraft accusations in the 16th and 17th century were the prominence of the devil in witchcraft accusations and the involvement of local, secular courts in prosecutions. The concept of witchcraft was very old, but in the past it had usually centered on the concept of maleficia: doing harm, usually to a neighbor. This was always frowned upon, but things were taken to a new height when the emphasis shifted to the diabolical aspect of witchcraft (which likely had trickled down from the medieval court magicians, who claimed to be able to command demons for the sake of good). This made everything quite a bit uglier, primarily because it transformed witchcraft from a crime to an act of heresy. This allowed for the local secular court to step in. Interestingly, secular courts were nearly always stricter in witchcraft persecutions than ecclesiastical ones. Regions where justice was decentralized - particularly the Holy Roman Empire and Scotland - saw the worst bursts of violence and accusations, while areas of centralized ecclesiastical justice like Spain saw very few. The Spanish Inquisition is not known as a bastion of tolerance, but if you were accused of being a witch it was probably one of the best places to be tried.

Levack also suggests that the Reformation didn’t cause witch-hunt – witch trials were going on 100+ years before the 95 Theses – but it probably did intensify and quicken its spread by its promotion of biblical literalism and condemnation of superstition. In the end, he argues that despite all of these overarching causes, most persecutions were local and were caused by local events. They eventually petered out as it became increasingly clear that many accusations were entirely specious and as ecclesiastical authors and jurists promoted heavy skepticism about the reality of (or the ability to identify) witchcraft.

It's a relatively dry book, and if you're looking for a lot of exciting and salacious witchcraft stories there are better places to go. But if you want a balanced, sober account of things, this is a great intro.

[Lisa · Rating 3 out of 5]

I like Goodreads, because I can bitch and complain with few consequences.

So, this book is the most accessible introduction to the overall topic for English language readers that I have found so far, but good grief, why didn't the man use an editor? Hire a ghost writer? Care about the literary quality of the work especially if it is intended as an academic textbook that students will be required to read?

He repeats himself frequently. He phrases things awkwardly. He prefers big vague words where simpler ones would do. The academic show-off/jargon/captive-audience disease. A sample:

"On balance, therefore, the central judicial authorities of early modern European states did more to restrain the process of witch-hunting than to abet it. The real initiative in witch-hunting came from the localities, not the central government. Almost all witches were initially apprehended by local officials, and in many cases they were tried by local tribunals. In the electorate of Trier, where witch-hunting took a terrible toll between 1589 to 1595, village committees actually seized the legal initiative from the council and started the hunt of their own volition. The central authorities of the state usually became involved in witch-hunting at a subsequent stage of the judicial process, and sometimes not until sentence had been passed and submitted to them on appeal. Whenever central or higher courts became involved in the process, accused witches had a better chance of acquittal or a modification of their sentence than if their fate remained in the hands of local magistrates." - page 94.

If you can stay awake reading this sort of thing, it seems a complete overview and I really do appreciate the footnotes and the bibliography.

[Margarita Morris · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book is detailed and rigorous in its approach and superbly argued. Levack explains the European witch-hunt in clear terms and gives pause for thought as to how popular superstitions, when combined with erroneous intellectual beliefs, a dubious judicial system, religious fundamentalism and economic and social unrest, can lead to the persecution and killing of those members of society who, for whatever reason, are regarded as subversive or simply as different and are therefore treated as scapegoats.

[JCJBergman · Rating 4 out of 5]

A fair and scholarly history and analysis of the "Witch Hunt" in early modern Europe - the 14th to the end of the 16th century. The writing is concise and engaging if one is reading out of curiosity or perhaps necessity. Like any topic, it is clear upon finishing that the "witch" phenomenon is far more complicated than one would initially think. I recommend this book!

[Melisa · Rating 3 out of 5]

I read this book looking for an informative book on the European witch hunts. Wow, was this informative. Unfortunately, it was rather dry and not exactly what I was hoping for. It had lots of discussion on the causation of the witch hunts, the laws, the educated leaders, the uneducated and prone to fantasy lower classes, and the reasons for all that transpired. Yet, I really wanted a look at the actual trials themselves, what happened, how and where, and why. what were the outcomes, on a more specific scale. I will keep up the search.

[Amy · Rating 5 out of 5]

heeft mijn onderzoek gesaved fijn overzicht ik love je brian

[Joelendil · Rating 4 out of 5]

There is no lack of books about the shameful era of witch-hunting (most intense from ~1450-1750). Most authors have their own pet theory of the main cause of the travesty (personal revenge, misogyny, the Protestants, the Catholics, religious intolerance in general, societal changes, political maneuvering, mass hysteria, etc.). Brian Levack rejects the idea of a monolithic witch hunt driven by one or two all-explaining reasons. Instead, he interacts with a wide range of primary source data and scholarly views regarding the rise, continuation, and decline of witch-hunting and argues that certain aspects of most of these views are applicable to varying degrees depending on the location, size, and time of individual witch-hunts. Whether or not all of his surmises are accurate, I appreciated the relative objectivity and complexity of his approach.

One of his main themes that I found particularly interesting was his distinction between maleficia (trying to cause harm through magic) and diabolism (the worship of the devil...especially in an organized, collective "witches' Sabbath" fashion). He does not go into whether magic actually works or the devil actually exists, but offers analysis on whether there were people that actually attempted to practiced either or both of these (supposed witches were generally accused of both). He argues that the practice of maleficia certainly existed to some extent, but that organized, collective diabolism was almost entirely a figment of Medieval Christian imagination. He regards this belief in diabolism as an important precondition for witch-hunts accelerating from the occasional burning of a disliked old woman to the wide-scale state-sponsored panics that consumed hundreds of victims. It reminded me a lot of the weird Satanic Ritual Abuse panic from the 80's and 90's (the reason a whole generation of Conservative Evangelical kids weren't allowed to go trick-or-treating...though I suppose that's better than thousands of people being executed).

I felt like the author occasionally mischaracterized Christian (especially Reformed) doctrinal development and beliefs, but overall the book was well research and thoughtfully argued - a must-read if you are interested in this topic!

[Jana · Rating 5 out of 5]

Ein umfassend detailiertes Buch, welches wegen seiner außerordentlichen Recherche (+ Quellen!) ein Fundstück für Menschen ist, die sich in dieser Materie gar nicht auskennen.

Mir war als Deutsche gar nicht richtig klar, dass meine historischen Landsleute bis 1740 am meisten an den europäischen Hexenjagden beteiligt waren. Die Grundlagen für die Verfolgungen fangen bei nonkonformen, bummssüchtigen Witwen an und erstrecken sich bis zur Konfrontation von Humanisten gegen die Scholastiker und den Protestanten gegen die röm. Kirche des 15. Jahrhunderts.
Dazu soll es noch irre Hexenhandbücher gegeben haben, die dann in der 2. Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts so richtig durch die Decke gegangen sind.
Als Leser taucht man dabei in so viele geschichtliche Abteile ein, dass man sich prima privat doof und dämlich recherchieren kann.

Wen die Quatschköpfe aus dem Spätmittelalter nich interessieren - es gibt ansonsten auch schöne, vollbusige Bildchen im Buch, die man auch ohne Kontext versteht.

[DS25 · Rating 5 out of 5]

“In questo libro si è cercato di dimostrare che vi furono due condizioni essenziali per il verificarsi della caccia alle streghe: la fusione di varie credenze sulla stregoneria, avvenuta verso la fine del XV secolo, e la contemporanea elaborazione di procedure legali; e che queste condizioni spiegano più di ogni altro fattore perché la caccia alle streghe abbia avuto luogo proprio in quel periodo. Naturalmente, queste due condizioni erano strettamente connesse, perché le varie credenze in materia di stregoneria poterono essere fuse insieme solo dopo l’elaborazione di nuove procedure giudiziarie. Il concetto cumulativo di stregoneria poté acquistare la legittimazione necessaria per imporre la sua attendibilità solo quando la giustizia fu in grado di costringere la gente a confermare con la confessione le fantasie degli inquisitori.”.

La centralità dell’accentramento della giurisprudenza, il carattere relativo della caccia alle streghe nei paesi mediterranei rispetto a Germania, Francia e Scozia e la continuazione dell’idea di strega nel mondo contemporaneo sono tre momenti chiave di questo libro, che si raccolgono nel concetto “cumulativo di stregoneria”.
Un ottimo testo, completo anche se un po’ ripetitivo, che aiuta lo storiografo italiano (ma anche il critico) a rivalutare la centralità del fattore religioso all’Interno del fenomeno-stregoneria.

[Julie · Rating 5 out of 5]

I read this book over a year ago for my history degree (shout out Professor David Luebke the goat), and I still think about this book frequently. 10/10 would recommend!
An extremely well-researched & engaging read from cover to cover. Bonus points because I loved the historically accurate illustrations (mostly contemporary woodcuts or engravings from late 16th century to mid 18th century).

[Ely · Rating 4 out of 5]

Very informative and well-written, and kind of surprisingly engaging and easy to follow. I thought I knew a decent amount about witch history already, but this taught me a lot of things I'd never heard of.

[The Smol Moth]

Hold up, how did I accidentally rate this???? I haven't read it yet, I was just trying to move it to another shelf 😭 I hate Goodreads. Anyway no I did not mean to one-star a history book I've never read, that was an accident!

[Joel Sánchez · Rating 3 out of 5]

brujas: mujeres malas por ser mujeres

[Peter Bradley · Rating 5 out of 5]

The Witch Hunt in Early Modern Europe (4th Ed.) by Brian P. Levack

Please give my Amazon review a helpful vote - https://www.amazon.com/gp/customer-re...

This is a “must-read” for anyone who wants to be informed on the issue of historical witches, historical witchcraft or the historical “witch-craze.” Author Brian P. Levack exhaustively marshals the data and sources and provides a coherent explanation for the phenomenon that gripped Europe between approximately 1500 and 1700.

Not surprisingly, Levack punctures a few myths. For example, it is not the case that “millions” of witches were burned during the “Burning Times.” On a European-wide basis for the approximate two hundred years of the witch-hunt, perhaps 45,000 were executed, either by hanging or burning. Further, while the majority of witches were women, a substantial minority- approximately 25% - were men. In some regions, the majority of executed witches men. Another myth that goes down the tube is the notion that the witch-hunt was a Protestant phenomenon, or, alternatively, that it was a product of the religious institutions of Europe. In fact, witch-hunts affected both Protestant and Catholic territories and were almost exclusively under the control of the rising European states. For all that, witch-hunts could be impressively destructive; Levack offers the example of communities where all but one or two women were left alive after their witch-craze had burned out.

Levack’s view is that the European witch-hunt would not have occurred with the intellectual development of a “diabolical” model of witchcraft. Europeans had long known about “maleficia,” witchcraft involving curses to cause injury. However, in Early Modern Europe, European intellectuals began to incorporate ideas that these witches were involved with Satan, that they were making pacts with Satan, and that they were congregating en masse with Satan at “witches’ Sabbaths.” This was a potent combination that could lead to paranoia about infiltration by the forces of Satan. Add to this mix, the religious foment of the period and the secular ambition to create “Godly Societies,” both Catholic and Protestant, and the urge to ferret out Satanic collaborators could overflow into a witch hunt under circumstances of stress.

Stress might come from the guilt of not being able to avoid sin or in not providing charity to those in need as social mores changed. Levack observes: “Support for witchcraft trials provided a means by which the members of European communities could acquire confidence in their own moral sanctity and ultimate salvation.” (p. 150.) (This looks a lot like the function of “twitter mobbing” in the modern era.) Stress could also arise from famines or the death of children, but not generally from wars, which tended to preoccupy people from engaging in witch-hunts.

Levack proves his argument with examinations of the areas where witch-hunts occurred. Where the full panoply of diabolical ideas was not present – Ireland, Spain, Russia – witch-hunts were smaller or infrequent.

Torture was another factor in spreading the witch-hunt. In theory, torture was limited, but in practice, in secular courts, the limitations were ignored. The result was that there would be “chain reactions” of accusations, which often resulted in accusations against the hunters themselves.

Interestingly, the limits on torture were respected in ecclesiastical courts, such as the Inquisition. Levack writes:

“Another reason for the relative tameness of witchcraft prosecutions in Italy, Spain and Portugal was the adherence of the Inquisition in each country to fairly strict procedural rules. In the Middle Ages papa inquisitors had become notorious for their unrestrained use of torture and the many other ways in which they had prejudiced the case against the accused. By the time the European witch-hunt began, however, inquisitors had produced a large body of cautionary literature, and two of the early modern institutions that succeeded the medieval inquisition – the Spanish and the Roman inquisitions – demonstrated exceptional concern for procedural propriety. Indeed, the Roman Inquisition has been referred to as a ‘pioneer in judicial reform.’ Unlike many secular courts, it made provision for legal counsel; it furnished the defendant with a copy of the charges and evidence against him; and it assigned very little weight to the testimony of a suspected witch against her confederates. One of the most noteworthy features of both Spanish and Roman inquisitorial procedure is that torture was rarely employed. In Spain it was used only when there was strong circumstantial evidence but no proof, and it was applied towards the end of the trial, just before judgment was pronounced. Even in the great Basque witch-hunt of 1609-1611, which involved thousands of suspects, the Inquisition tortured only two of the accused, and since the torture allowed their sentences to be commuted from death to banishment, it can be legitimately considered an act of mercy. The only pressure to use torture as a deliberate means to extract confessions came from local secular authorities and local mobs, groups whose extra-legal tactics the Inquisition sought to restrain. Even the benandanti, the members of an ancient fertility cult in Friuli whom the Inquisition gradually convinced they were witches, were never put to torture.” (p. 219.)

So, add that to the list of busted myths.

Levack also explains why women were largely the victims of witch-hunts were women. It had nothing to do with male power dynamics or ancient mother goddess religions, but, rather, it had to do with the fact that women worked in “dangerous” professions where they were involved in child-care. Children often died in this era and mothers had understandable anxieties about the care of their children. The death of children was often a trigger that fed on years of gossip and suspicion. Levack points out that the “Satanic child-abuse” panic of the 1980s was likewise focused on child care workers.

Levack argues that the era of the witch-hunt ended in part because of its success. So many were swept up, including elites, that the elites could no longer believe that all the accused were guilty. Central state control over prosecutions and executions took over, limiting or eliminating executions and eliminating the use of torture. Skepticism about confessions and the kinds of evidence, including spectral evidence and the testimony of children, also added to the decline. Finally, Europe developed a more skeptical attitude about whether any particular misfortune was actually supernatural and whether these marginal members of society really were the kind of people that the Prince of Hell would enroll in his grand plan for subversion.

This book is not a casual read. It is a textbook. Nonetheless for students of history, it should make a captivating read.

[Adam · Rating 4 out of 5]

He basically argues that two major changes in the legal system led to the early modern witch-hunt: first, the adoption of inquisitorial methods and second, the secular takeover of trying witchhunts (as anyone who studies medieval history knows, secular courts tended to be overzealous when pursuing attacks and witches, the inquisitors initially were very skeptical about the reality of the witches). He also connects the rise of witchcraft trials with social changes and the Reformation, but these he sees as secondary causes. Why did witch trials decline? A rise of secular skepiticism in the late seventeenth century and the early eighteenth century, and the emergence of the modern state that did not appreciate the local courts (who dominated witch-trials) flexing their muscles. Major compliant: too much a focus on the top not on the bottom.

[Olives Erickson · Rating 5 out of 5]

Humorous, informative, and well crafted. The arguments and lines of logic are easy to follow and in-depth. I enjoyed the time taken to go over not only established thoughts on the hunts, and the logic behind those thoughts, but the outliers and the trials that go against trend. The newer editions have an additional chapter going over the modern applications of the term “witch hunt” so I recommend them in particular!

[Marianna · Rating 5 out of 5]

Una questione storica complessa
Volevo consigliare questo interessante saggio scritto da Brian LEVACK insegnante di storia all’Università del Texas di Austin, specialista in storia della stregoneria in Europa e in Occidente in generale.
L’opera è divisa in nove corposi capitoli seguiti da un”altrettanto corposa bibliografia e note finali. La caccia alle streghe è forse la questione storica dove i disaccordi tra gli studiosi sono i più numerosi ed è un fenomeno solo europeo.
La credenza nella magia e nella stregoneria fa parte di quasi tutte le culture del mondo (Africa, America Latina, etc.), ma il sistema europeo di credenze di stregoneria è unico perché, sottolinea più volte LEVACK, è presente in esso la componente satanica . In altre parole patto col diavolo, infanticidio, volo notturno anche cannibalismo. Tale sistema è stato definito e costruito da generazioni di teologi cristiani. Diciamolo: la componente della Riforma cattolica ha dato un forte contributo, ma non decisivo secondo lo storico, alla costruzione di tale fenomeno.
Sotto tale impulso la stregoneria da crimine spirituale diventerà secolare, con mobilitazione di tribunali laici, l’ammissione di tortura a scopo di estorcere le confessioni.
Il mago o la strega erano considerati un eretici, anche quando i loro scopi, le loro azioni, erano benevole, perché le pratiche magiche davano al Male ciò che era dovuto a Dio. L’eretico era pur sempre un traditore e quindi col tempo divenne meritevole delle più aspre pene.
LEVACK adotterà il “concetto cumulativo di stregoneria” per indicare un sistema dotto di credenze, in cui il patto col diavolo è il fondamento giuridico dei processi, seguito poi dal volo notturno, dalla partecipazione ai sabba (con particolare enfasi sull’aspetto erotico). Lo studioso tra l’altro sostiene che senza la credenza nel sabba la caccia alle streghe sarebbe stato un fenomeno storico di portata molto minore.
Nei vari capitoli verranno indicate le figure più suscettibili di essere accusate di stregoneria, la reazione dei vari stati europei al fenomeno , le varie tipologie di tortura, i vari libri e trattati sulla magia che grazie all’invenzione della stampa divennero di dominio quasi pubblico.
In un’epoca definita da White “l’età dell’ansia”, per i vari processi di cambiamento demografico, politico, religioso il fenomeno della caccia alle streghe ha sicure basi psicologiche, insite nel grande mutamento sociale, dove il diverso, l’emarginato è considerato una figura ribelle e sovversiva.

Un saggio arricchente, bellissimo ed approfondito.

[Hella · Rating 4 out of 5]

Questo è stato uno di quei libri che mi sono portata dietro letteralmente per mesi, mentre ingranavo altre letture, e poi ho concluso leggendo le ultime centinaia di pagine in un giorno o due.
Il libro tratta di tutti gli aspetti sociali, economici, religiosi, politici del fenomeno della caccia alle streghe in Europa. La trattazione di questi temi avviene in senso cronologico, da come e perché è partita, quindi le basi della caccia, a come si è sviluppata nelle diverse aree europee, fino ai motivi per cui è finita, sia a livello ufficiale, quindi le cacce organizzate e promosse dagli agenti governativi, sia a livello popolare, quando non vengono promosse dall'alto ma sono frutto di iniziative di singoli. E' un libro ricco di numeri, di dati, un saggio molto ricco e approfondito in ogni aspetto, con spiegazioni su come ogni cambiamento nel fenomeno sia accaduto.
A pensarci adesso, dopo essermi goduta la spiegazione della fine della caccia alle streghe in un ultimo capitolo molto interessante, non so come mai ci abbia messo tutti questi mesi a finire un libro su un argomento che tra l'altro mi interessa anche molto. Probabile che abbia iniziato qualche altro libro e questo sia un po' scivolato nell'oblio. Mi auguro che chi leggerà questo libro dopo aver letto questa mia recensione, gli dia tutta l'attenzione che merita.

[Rob♥ · Rating 3 out of 5]

Il saggio di Levack è sicuramente un'ottima introduzione all'argomento della stregoneria e della caccia alle streghe. L'autore sceglie di non soffermarsi su una singola causa, o presunta tale, inerente alla nascita e diffusione della caccia alle streghe ma, invece, decide di argomentare un'ampia gamma di possibilità e motivazioni. Motivo per cui, questo libro, è sicuramente un ottimo approccio alla materia che permette di analizzare più situazioni contemporaneamente. All'interno del libro vengono affrontati elementi geografici, religiosi culturali, sociali ed economici che secondo l'autore avrebbero (in maniera minore o maggiore) contribuito al fenomeno della caccia.

Ho trovato ottima l'enorme quantità di fonti e riferimenti a trattati e testi sia contemporanei ai fatti che moderni.
Tuttavia sarei ipocrita nel definire questo libro perfetto nel suo genere. Levack molto spesso all'interno delle pagine è eccessivamente prolisso ma soprattutto si ripete troppo nei concetti esposti. Questo a lungo andare fa calare l'attenzione nella lettura.

È sicuramente un ottimo riferimento se preso in un insieme di studi e saggi sull'argomento. Sono contento di essermi approcciato alla materia della stregoneria e della caccia alle streghe con questo saggio che ha instillato in me la volontà di proseguire questi studi ulteriormente.

[Tess · Rating 5 out of 5]

I see now why this is considered the definitive text in the witch trials. Levack is clear on the outrageous nature of the crimes committed by those who hunted, tried and executed accused witches. He presents both hard facts and his theories and explanations in an extremely clear and intelligible and systematic way. This is a must-read for anyone interested in the witch trials and why they happened.

[Vincenzo Improta · Rating 4 out of 5]

La prosa, scorrevole e di immediata comprensione, rivela un autore che fonda le proprie argomentazioni su fonti solide e le sostiene con il rigore tipico dell’umanista consapevole del proprio sapere. Quest’opera si configura non solo come un’introduzione esemplare alle discipline che affronta, ma anche come un prezioso strumento per appagare la curiosità intellettuale di chiunque: dal lettore più esigente a quello meno pratico ma altrettanto curioso.

[Mary Rose · Rating 5 out of 5]

The man, the myth, the legend. Brian P Levack is my favorite witch-loving historian to read. I love how he writes, he’s so systematic in his treatment of a massive body of material. He makes everything so clear, he points out common misconceptions and holes in our knowledge while not sacrificing the overall impression of his scholarship. So pleased to finally finish this one.

[Sarah Gehres · Rating 3 out of 5]

I read this in my HIST 132: Witches, Witch-hunting, and Fear in Early Modern Europe, 1450-1700 class. Levack's secondary sources made good companion readings to the lectures and information in the class.

[Clarissa · Rating 3 out of 5]

Uno studio molto approfondito sulla caccia alle streghe con le ragioni storiche, religiosi e sociali. Per me troppo erudito, troppi dettagli sull’argomento. Quindi ho finito per percorrerlo invece di leggerlo veramente tutto.

[Giulia · Rating 4 out of 5]

Il libro garantisce la copertura dell’intero periodo della caccia alle streghe, spingendosi fino a considerare alcune delle sue propaggini moderne. Prende in considerazione le varie cause che hanno generato il fenomeno, mostrando come siano tutte imprescindibilmente collegate le une alle altre.

[Kaelen Kinnaman · Rating 5 out of 5]

It's an extremely interesting book that, while obviously discussing witches and their hunters, is also great for learning about the judicial history of early modern Europe. Levack is clearly an expert on the material and writes with clarity and authority. Highly recommend 👌

[A.J. Jr. · Rating 4 out of 5]

A good history and analysis of the witch-hunts that took place in early modern Europe.

[Jesse · Rating 4 out of 5]

Well written overview of some of the causes of the great European Witch-Hunt. Levack’s narrative is easy to follow and easily digestible for both scholars and laypeople alike.

[Jess · Rating 5 out of 5]

Book was so informative & really gave insights into the environment that allowed with hunts to transpire in the first place. 10/10 recommend

[Sara Harvey · Rating 5 out of 5]

Amazing introduction into this field of historical study. Recommended even to my non-history-nerd friends.