The Idea of a Critical Theory: Habermas and the Frankfurt School

by Raymond Geuss

Habermas and earlier members of the Frankfurt School have presented critical theory as a radically new form of knowledge. It is differentiated from the natural sciences as essentially 'reflective': the knowledge it provides guides us towards enlightenment as to our true interests, and emancipation from often unsuspected forms of external and internal coercion. Its first paradigms are in the writings of Marx and Freud. In this book Raymond Geuss sets out these fundamental claims and asks whether they can be made good. Is a science which does not simply describe and explain social phenomena, but also criticizes? The concept of ideology plays a crucial role in this discussion. Geuss carefully analyses it here, its relation to our beliefs and interests, and the account of truth and confirmation required by its critique and the concomitant goal of self-knowledge. The book does not presuppose acquaintance with the works of the Frankfurt School and can serve as a lucid introduction to their central, distinctive theses. But in its scrupulous and incisive consideration of these, and the modified support for them that emerges, it will also interest experts on critical theory and others concerned with the methods and purposes of the social sciences in general.

Genres: Philosophy, Politics, Theory, Nonfiction, Sociology, Education

116 pages, Paperback

First published October 30, 1981

About the author

Raymond Geuss, Emeritus Professor in the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Cambridge, is a political philosopher and scholar of 19th and 20th century European philosophy.

Reviews

[Justin Evans · Rating 4 out of 5]

Certainly, this is not an introduction to the Frankfurt School, although some seem to believe as much. It should be read alongside Horkheimer's essay, 'Traditional and Critical Theory,' Habermas' essay 'Between Philosophy and Science: Marxism as Critique,' and Adorno's 'Why Still Philosophy?'
Like those essays, this book is programmatic: what *would* a critical theory do? And is it possible? So there is not a lot in here about the actual substance of any given critical theory. Nothing much about 'communicative rationality,' not much about 'negative dialectics,' not much about the 'one-dimensional society.' Rather, this book tries to explain what those projects are meant to achieve.
Given this aim, Geuss succeeds admirably. The book is clear and precise. It doesn't have that kick of rebellion that you can find in Zizek or Badiou's popular works, or the slightly mystifying air of Adorno's worst work, or the hipness of Marcuse's. Some people will say this is a bad thing, and criticize Geuss for putting these ideas in clear, precise prose. Each to their own. But if you want to understand what all that rebellion and mystification and hipness is actually about, you could do worse than begin here.
The one downside is that the focus here is on individuals, which is necessary for analytical ethical philosophy. 'Society,' which is really the object of critique, doesn't get much of a look in. This is a shame, but on the other hand, the book mainly deals with Habermas, and he too uses this language. It's also odd that Geuss prefers Adorno's project, but focuses on Habermas. I guess the latter's just easier to write about.

[Simon · Rating 3 out of 5]

This small book has several virtues and several problems. It has three chapters, the first on Ideology, the second on Interests, and the third on Critical Theory. It deploys much of the rigor and attention to conceptual analysis characteristic of analytic philosophy to ideas developed first by Marx, and subsequently by members of the Frankfurt School. This is a great virtue, and the book is generally clear and thorough in making distinctions between different senses of ideology, relating interests to needs and desires, and exploring the different ways in which critical theory might bring enlightenment and emancipation by attacking ideology. But the book is relentlessly dry and abstract and it is not at all clear how useful the careful conceptual work is to getting deeply into the very interesting issues surrounding this subject.

[Kira · Rating 4 out of 5]

Geuss draws distinctions between several (very) different concepts of ideology. This is a good thing, since more than one of these concepts often seem to be implied by popular, political, and academic uses of the term. Then he asks: if critical theory is supposed to lead one to recognize some ideology that one holds, as an ideology, which kind of ideology does the theory reveal? And what is the intended effect of this revelation on that person's future? Geuss argues that critical theory, as Habermas and Adorno both understand it, should confront some group of people with the claim that they have adopted some of their beliefs and practices under social conditions so far from what they ought to be, that no one could help but adopt beliefs which, acting upon them, differentially benefit some other social group and contribute to the oppressed group's domination by them. Furthermore, the oppressed group would never have adopted these ideological beliefs had their causal origins, the misplaced objectivity of their framing, or their domination-reproducing function become clear. Inconsistencies in the dominating groups' own operative version of rationality allow the origin, function, and preferential nature of ideological beliefs to remain obscure. What I liked about Geuss's book is that he recognizes the philosophically vague or inconsistent parts of critical theory, and then suggests ways of repairing those parts. It's not a book of critical theory or even a guide of the methodology thereof, but a philosophical clarification of the concepts of ideology and ideology critique.

[عماد العتيلي · Rating 3 out of 5]

‎‫‏‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬

A beautiful super short book. It didn’t give me ALL of what I needed to know about Frankfurt School, but it gave me a very good idea about their prominent figures and their critical theory.

Not sufficient. Just good!

[Lee · Rating 5 out of 5]

According to the Frankfurt School, Marx's theory of society and Freud's theory of psychoanalysis are both "critical theories." What is said to distinguish a critical theory from an ordinary theory in the natural sciences is that it is "reflective" rather than merely "objectifying." What makes a theory reflective is that it can function as a guide to action for the agents who hold it, helping them to realize their true interests; in this way critical theories are said to be both enlightening and emancipatory.

The bogeyman of critical theorists is the positivist of the Vienna Circle. In the positivist's view critical theories are at best a mix of empirical claims and moral judgments, exceeding the bounds of science proper. The Frankfurt School wants to combat the positivist's view and vindicate critical theory as a distinctive and legitimate form of knowledge, showing up the too-narrow epistemology of the positivist.

Geuss reviews different ways this vindication could be pulled off, and it's not easy. He focuses on the centerpiece of Marxist critical theory, its criticism of ideology (Ideologiekritik). A successful criticism of ideology is one that frees agents from the grip of their society's false ideology -- making it both emancipatory and enlightening, as good critical theories must be.

What makes this tricky is that positivism could, in principle, be quite accommodating, making space for objectifying theories that would show an ideology to be false for many interesting senses of "false": false because illegitimately presenting as objective what is in fact socially contingent; false because self-fulfilling in a way that depends on agents not appreciating its nature; etc. Geuss considers what a critical theory *must* be if it can show up positivism with a distinctive kind of knowledge.

He argues that Juergen Habermas's criticism of ideology has what it takes to be a critical theory imparting a kind of knowledge that positivists would deny is possible: it can condemn an ideology as "false" in a sense that positivism could not, and it can do so in a way that enlightens and emancipates agents who hold it. In abbreviated form, Geuss summarizes Habermas's criticism of ideology like this: "For Habermas, ideology is fundamentally false conscious­ness [...], but the 'falsity' in ques­tion is 'reflective unacceptability,' and to say of a form of consciousness that it is reflectively unacceptable is to [say] that it could only have been acquired under conditions of coercion."

For an hour or so this morning I felt I was tracking how criticism of ideology like this could be a valid form of knowledge that, like a butterfly, manages to elude the positivist's empirical net. Just as I write this, I'm unsure again. The maneuver that saves it from restatement in purely empirical terms may be the deduction from "could only have been acquired under conditions of coercion" to "reflectively unacceptable" and then to "false"--? There is a transcendental argument vibe, and Geuss points out this is distinctive to Habermas; other critical theorists do not formulate their criticism of ideology quite that way.

For me this was a valuable short book. My encounters with critical theory in the past have been frustrating, but Geuss is a very clear writer if you like the analytical style -- and of course not everyone does.

[Ethan]

Initially was unimpressed with Geuss' style, but my view improved substantially. I think this is a pretty good essay, though I do not feel it is broad enough to serve as a genuine introduction to critical theory generally, something I'm not sure Geuss claims but that the edition presents itself as. It is best read as a critical engagement with Habermas with some extra Frankfurt School discussion sprinkled in. Unfortunately my knowledge of Habermas is too limited to fully engage with the correctness of his critical engagement, but it is well-sourced, analytically well presented, thoroughly engaged. A good, tidy, book.

[Cole Donovan · Rating 4 out of 5]

An accessible (if somewhat simplistic) overview of a notoriously abstruse topic. Looking to understand the basic project of the critical theory? This is a good place to start.

[Barry Magid · Rating 4 out of 5]

It is interesting to note certain qualities Buddhism has in common with Critical Theory, beginning with their shared aim of “enlightenment and emancipation,” even as they define these differently- though perhaps not as differently as you would imagine. Critical Theory ( to oversimplify) offers a critique of “ideology” where that is defined as an unreflective world view that misrepresents the true interests of members of a society, who unaware of the hidden or coercive conditions that gave rise to that ideology, willingly participate in the social practices that maintain it. A Marxist critique of capitalism might point to an underlying ideology that takes inequality for granted as a natural and unavoidable byproduct of the system, while hiding the class interests that are preserved by the free market system. Workers would be said to be not just deluded about their own self interest, but actively engaged, say by appeals to nationalism, in supporting the very system that keeps them impoverished and unempowered.
Buddhism offers a critique of self-interest that likewise claims we not only misunderstand our true interests, but by actively pursuing a self-interest that by reinforcing a deluded picture of the self, keeps us looking in all the wrong directions for the source of our suffering. As a Critical Theory it seeks to illuminate both the nature and source of our self delusion. But the line between critique and ideology can be slippery, as the example of Marxism shows. What began as a critique of capitalism became an ideology in its own right, a worldview that justified oppression in the name of revolution. Buddhism, like any religion, goes beyond a critique of our prior unexamined life, towards creating a picture a the new emancipated or enlightened life - originally outlined by the Vinaya precepts. These in turn, become an ideology in their own right, establishing new normative regulations that inevitably prioritize one set of (home-leaving monastic ) values over all others in the name of “true “ emancipation. Within the Frankfurt School there was debate whether a critique was always tied to a particular situation, time and place (Adorno)- and relevant only to that historical moment - or whether critique could -and must be - transcendent - valid for everyone everywhere. (Habermas) Buddhism has traditionally asserted the transcendental position, but is increasingly been seen through an historicist lens - it’s message and relevance changing from culture to culture.
Geuss offers a short, lucid (if bone dry) outline of Frankfurt School Critical Theory that is recommended to anyone, who like me, is trying to get their bearings in the writings of Adorno and Habermas.

[Tom Pepper · Rating 5 out of 5]

An exceptionally lucid account of the Frankfurt school concept of critical theory. Guess outlines the different assumptions of different members of the “school,” and explains where they overlap sufficiently to allow for a shared concept of critical theory. He also does an excellent job of explaining the concept of ideology inherent in Frankfurt school thinking (I think their concept is fundamentally flawed, but still, Geuss does explain it remarkably clearly, and shows how their entire project really depends on it). Short, clear (if you have some knowledge of these thinkers—that is, if you don’t know what the Frankfurt school is, you might not be ready to read this), and Geuss is a brilliant thinker, unpacking difficult concepts with great insight. The only complaint I have would be that it remains a bit abstract—I like theory to be applied to concrete examples—but that is the nature of a book like this.

[Nat]

I'm a philosopher working in the analytic tradition, mainly on topics in philosophy of language. But because philosophy concerns, as Wilfrid Sellars put, "How things, in the broadest possible sense of the term hang together in the broadest possible sense of the term", by working on a project on contemporary ordinary language philosophy, I've been led to start thinking about ideology "in the pejorative sense" because the notion of the "ordinary" as it gets used in certain debates about ordinary language philosophy is not really a scientific concept but something shot through with weird unexamined expectations and (probably false) beliefs. So I was led to Geuss's introduction to critical theory because Ch. 1 gives a helpful taxonomy of different ways of thinking about ideology in the pejorative sense in a way that is basically friendly to analytic ways of thinking about belief, justification, function, and history.

[Ezri · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book is an extremely rigorous introduction to critical theory, in particular what makes it different than a scientific theory, and why it should still be considered a rational enterprise. It covers some basic differences between the Frankfurt School proper and Habermas' later development of critical theory. Perfect for those generally steeped in analytical philosophy or the social sciences looking for an introduction to the topic.

[Milkforthepussens · Rating 4 out of 5]

Decent introduction to critical theory, plenty of signposting for other things to read. Presents a number of different perspectives/definitions, and while it's maybe a little clinical in its descriptions this ultimately aids understanding of a fairly complex subject.

[mao · Rating 2 out of 5]

Read Chapter 3, a basic overview of the Frankfurt school, nothing new.

[Nick Geiser · Rating 5 out of 5]

An outstanding introduction to the Frankfurt School and critical theory. Clear, concise, and illuminating

[Kars · Rating 4 out of 5]

Extremely useful reconstruction from the ground up of what critical theory is and how it’s supposed to work. Excruciatingly meticulous in its analytical moves. When I read Geuss I always feel like I am watching some kind of computer-controlled laser cut through stuff with insane precision. Yes, it makes for a very dry reading experience. But it’s also just so helpful, clarifying, and maybe even generous. Geuss clearly cares a heck of a lot the reader understands his line of reasoning.

It’s only 95 pages but it took me more than a few short sittings to work through this (about eight sessions of 30-60 minutes each) but you really do need to pay attention and take your time with each step Geuss takes.

In my field of research (HCI/design), “being critical” and “critical” this or that is frequently bandied about. I try to work in this space. These approaches seem to be indebted to or gesturing at the Frankfurt School’s original program. But from reading this, it’s become clear to me that “proper” critical theory is very demanding, requiring much more than mere rejection of the current order on some normative grounds. It requires showing why a particular hegemonic arrangement fails on its own terms (ideology critique). And it must be done by direct interactive participant observation and reflection with the groups we seek to emancipate from their state of oppression.

So yeah, highly recommended for the real social theory / social philosophy heads. Not sure who else would get much out of this though.

[Uğur · Rating 5 out of 5]

Taking the Frankfurt School from the line of Adorno and Horkheimer; from qualified books in which a general Habermas philosophy and ethics are processed under the titles of public space, deliberative democracy, empathy for the other, being one's own.

Although Habermas is considered a name that comes after Adorno and Horkheimer, his school is the 21st. the fact that he has created the philosophy that carries him to the century brings him one step forward. Although the school worked in the field of communication and community culture, Habermas's inclusion of public space in this has greatly expanded the scope of the school.

There is a serious criticism of positivism in the philosophical sense in the book. It would not be wrong to say that the criticism of positivist thought, which has a rather vicious method of accessing information, is the ascending flow of critical thinking. In addition, since the subject of commodification is also a product of positivist thinking, the formation of a market for everything and the extinction of philosophy are also among the topics covered in positivism criticism. Actually, I need to write much longer about this, the review was very sketchy in my eyes in this way. However, I will not describe this short book with a long review. I wish you a pleasant reading without spoilers.

[Spencer · Rating 4 out of 5]

I started reading this book because I wanted an introduction to the Frankfurt School --- it ended up not being that, really (the title is a little misleading; it is about Habermas, and social theory very broadly), and it was quite dry, but it was still enjoyable for what it was. It's short, and free on the Internet Archive.

I'm still looking for good entries into the Frankfurt School and if I ever find any and remember to do so, maybe I'll come report back here.

[Misha · Rating 4 out of 5]

Geuss's style is just great. He is rigorous in making distinctions, but does so mostly using very casual-sounding sentences (infused with a common-sense American tone). It reminds me a bit of Socrates, and shows that no matter how focused his readings of Habermas and Marx are, he definitely maintains an independent and authentic voice.

[Tarık · Rating 3 out of 5]

Kitabı puanlama kriteri insandan insana, zamandan zamana değişir. Bu kitabı nasıl puanlayacağımı bilmiyorum. Okumaya başlarken kitaptan istediğim şeyleri kitap bitiminde alamadım belki de sorun bendedir. Kitap tartışılır, olmamış gibi ama yer yer iyi gibi.

[Amy · Rating 5 out of 5]

One of the biggest philosophy slays of the 20th century, he ate the Frankfurt school up. I keep going back to this one, it’s basically a reference guide for me at this point. Ty Raymond guess for saving my essays!

[Ecem Engin · Rating 3 out of 5]

Pek beğenmedim arkadaşlar konular hakkında derinlemesine bilginiz yoksa anlamak zor..

[David · Rating 5 out of 5]

Absolute must read

[Shelby · Rating 4 out of 5]

Reread, still four stars.