Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity

by David Hurst Thomas

The 1996 discovery, near Kennewick, Washington, of a 9,000-year-old Caucasoid skeleton brought more to the surface than bones. The explosive controversy and resulting lawsuit also raised a far more fundamental question: Who owns history? Many Indians see archeologists as desecrators of tribal rites and traditions; archeologists see their livelihoods and science threatened by the 1990 Federal reparation law, which gives tribes control over remains in their traditional territories.In this new work, Thomas charts the riveting story of this lawsuit, the archeologists' deteriorating relations with American Indians, and the rise of scientific archeology. His telling of the tale gains extra credence from his own reputation as a leader in building cooperation between the two sides.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Anthropology, Science, Archaeology, Indigenous, Native American

371 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 2000

About the author

David Hurst Thomas (born 1945) is the curator of North American Archaeology in the Division of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History and a professor at Richard Gilder Graduate School. He was previously a chairman of the American Museum of Natural History's Anthropology Division.

Reviews

[Karen · Rating 4 out of 5]

4.5 stars and I'm only deducting points because this work is now (sadly) 15 years old and I want to know how some of these cases resolved that were in progress in 1999! An excellent overview of indigenous-science relations. It is brief, but comprehensive and extremely readable. I wish I would have read it years ago when it was first recommended to me. Public history/museum friends, this one is a must!

[Leah · Rating 5 out of 5]

Absolutely fantastic. Completely changes the way you see the role of anthropologists in relation to Native American populations and our own view of what it means to be "Indian."

Filled with vivid historical accounts, colorful anecdotes and strong arguments from all sides that show how close to home academic debates can be, while still being interesting to read Highly recommend.

[K · Rating 4 out of 5]

Even though this book is more than 20 years old, it feels contemporary. The issue of how Tribal Nations are treated (the term used in the book is Indians, but I think that's been updated these days) remains highly relevant, and to it has been added the same questions about Blacks and other groups in our country. This book explains the unique and devastating way that Native Americans were classified by law as less than full citizens, and how that lasted into the 1970s and reverberates even to this day. Most of us know about the appalling murders and forced relocations that took place for centuries, and this book references a few of the most awful incidents, including a massacre near Denver known as Sand Creek in 1864 that I didn't know about. Gruesome stuff, but this author doesn't dwell too much on that, as his purpose is to use those events as illustrations, rather than to replay old wounds.

Also, the author uses these incidents (and if anything downplays them by using terms such as "incident" rather than "genocide," which is what it was) to explain how laws were written to exclude Natives. At the most obvious level, the interpretation of laws allowed killing Indians and taking their land, even though the treaties said you couldn't do that.

But the insults lasted even beyond the injuries. Basically, because the Natives were seen as less evolved than Europeans -- the book explains about theories of hierarchy of races -- their dead were considered no different than any other historical artifact. An Indian gravesite could be dug and skeletal remains taken to a museum, just like a mastodon's bones or a piece of pottery. And so for more than a century thousands of Indians were disinterred and removed to museums, put on display, or just locked in drawers and left there for researchers. And those researchers did bunches of dubious studies of skull size and shape, and from that tried to affirm their assumptions that White Europeans were a superior race. They were sincere, hard-working scientists who were as "objective" as they could be at the time. But they were doing crazy stuff because they were trying to prove incorrect assumptions about race, intelligence, compassion, etc.

The other point of the book is that event when it wasn't junk science, it still influenced how scientists behaved. This was shown in the 1990s over the finding of the "Kennewick Man," a Native whose nearly intact skeleton was found in a riverbed after a big storm in Washington State. Scientists, who one would assume had left behind the racist and ignorant theories of decades before, took the stance that this man was a piece of natural history, theirs for the taking. The Natives who had lived in that area for thousands of years said that he was a descendent and that federal law enacted in 1990 (Native American Grave Repatriation Act) meant that they could decide whether to share with a museum or rebury according to their traditional practices. This case went up the court system, with the courts ruling that the Natives couldn't prove a direct lineal affiliation over 9,000 with this skeleton, and thus it was available for science.

That's another of the lessons in this book. That unless Natives could prove these lineal descents, they couldn't claim certain rights. The way they prove it is through an oral history that stretches back 3,000, or 5,000, or 9,000 years. But anthropologists and archaeologists discounted the oral histories, saying that it was impossible for them to survive accurately for that wrong, and that Natives who told those tales were coached by Whites or interpreted by Whites into what they wanted to hear. But there are numerous examples of Natives' origin stories that match up very well with what the geologic record shows, such as explosions of volcanoes that led to the formation of a crater lake -- a tale told by dozens of Natives long before science had theorized the same thing had happened --- and of floods that are confirmed too. This book makes an eloquent argument for giving those oral histories equal weight with the work of archaeology, while also acknowledging the truth behind one of archaeologists' and anthropologists' claims as well: that they are preserving and interpreting the record of Natives in ways that they wouldn't be able to do by themselves.

The book ends on a relatively high note about how the views of the two sides are merging and that cooperation increased from the 1980s and beyond (though there were many well-meaning examples from decades before that had limited success too). Archaeologists understand that the Natives' stories can help them find sites to dig and to interpret what they see. Natives understand that many of the scientists are trying to do the right thing, and that they can trust those who are good listeners and honest brokers.

And, in a nice coda that's not in the book, the Kennewick Man's remains were returned to the tribal nation in 2017 after DNA tests showed a huge correlation with living members -- who had been saying all along that they had lived in that area for 9,000 years or more.

Is everything solved today? Not by a long shot. But the tribes are getting healthier and they are finally being treated fairly by the Biden administration (after 4 years of antagonism from Trumpers). They are fighting against oil and gas pipelines across their land with greater success than ever before. They have won lawsuits in Oklahoma to give them greater rights over land than was thought possible under earlier interpretations of treaties. And they also are recognizing that on some of the worst issues -- opioids, Covid, sexual violence -- they do need outside help.

Let's hope that when the next scholar or activist writes the next "Skull Wars," it's about how much things have changed for the better.

[Kristi · Rating 5 out of 5]

I received a degree in cultural anthropology in 1997, at a time when Franz Boas and early archaeology/ethnology pioneers were still largely revered for their "contributions" to science and cultural preservation. My coursework touched on the grave robbing and exploitative practices, and acknowledged the flaws in biological race theory, but these were not prominent themes in my program. Even though this book is over two decades old, it's still relevant and should be a part of any modern anthropologist's essential reads. It's a deep dive into the history, practices, and personalities that led to the practice of archaeology and anthropology today.
For such a heavy topic, it's a surprisingly engaging book, and it poses ethical and moral quandaries without lecturing the reader or belittling one's intelligence. The notes and resources sections have a wealth of both scholarly and popular media articles, if the reader wants to keep exploring these topics. I'd love to see an updated version of this book with additional chapters/resources reflecting the state of cultural anthropology/archaeology today.

[Samantha · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book is crucial for any anthropologist and archaeologist who want to work in the field or want to work with American Indians worldwide. The socio-historical outline elaborates on the development of anthropology & archaeology as a colonial practice, exploring their contributions and problems in constructing the past. It also examines the political landscape by which American Indians were forcefully removed from their lands by the United States government onto dispersed reservations. The main story is of Kennewick Man, which American Indians have claimed are the direct descendants of the people living at his time approximately 9-10,000 years ago. The controversy stems from the practices of archaeologists as the authoritative stewards of the archaeological record, which neglects American Indian identity, oral traditions, and respect for the dead or any associated objects to the dead. With the provisioning of NAGPRA (Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act) it is posited that any evidence that links remains to a descendant group shall be entitled to them. There are many ways of interpreting who might have cultural affiliation to the remains and all methods are treated with equal validity (i.e. oral tradition, DNA, historical records, ethnographic accounts, etc). It will be vital for archaeologists to collaborate with Indigenous communities on interpreting the past in order to both preserve the archaeological record and revitalize American Indian identity.

[Geoffrey · Rating 4 out of 5]

This was a required reading for me, but it was also a book I strongly recommend.

This book is a history of North American Archaeology. The book talks about the disrespect archaeologists have had for Native American (in particular, but also a bit on other groups). It talks about how laws have come into place to help protect Native American culture and history, and it talks about what can be done moving forward to be respectful while studying the history of Native American culture.

It's a pretty interesting read : I recommend.

[Andrew · Rating 4 out of 5]

Based on the title and purported subject matter of the book, a little more detail about the Kennewick Man himself and the surrounding controversy, both legal and cultural, was expected. As it was, only a small space is dedicated to the 9000 year old skeletal remains of a prehistoric man found on a bank of the Columbia River in Kennewick, WA on July 28, 1996.

After their discovery, the remains became the newest and most visible battleground surrounding what can and should be done with such skeletons. Based on the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), five Native American groups claimed the remains as theirs, to be buried by traditional means. Hoping to study the remains, the scientific community argued that the Kennewick Man had no direct connection to any modern-day native tribe, and that NAGPRA should not apply.As of now, these remains are still legally the property of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and can be found at the Burke Museum at the University of Washington.

This situation sparked the actual topic of Skull Wars, which could be said to be an effort to make these two opponents realize that they are not, in fact, on opposite sides of the issues that matter. Thus, rather than rehash the media and legal frenzy regarding the find, the vast majority of the book is spent mapping the history of modern anthropology and its relationship, however rocky, with Native Americans. Along the way, the author succeeds, to a large degree, in reshaping the reader's understanding of what those engaged in the study of archaeology and natural history have done, are doing, and perhaps should be doing in the future. Indeed, by modern standards, much of what stood for early anthropolgy and archaeology is, at times, appalling. It is also quite shocking to learn just how recently the modern version of this field was developed, how far it has come in a short time, and just how far it still has to go.

With this wide a view, there were times when, as a reader, one lost sight of the overall picture being painted for the sheer quantity of stories and colorful anecdotes creating the history of this relationship. However, it is this history which lends the book one of its most important features: while the book at times speaks almost directly to the "combatants," it is very much accessible to the public. It is a work which provides a horde of information, familiar to those directly involved, but to which most of the rest of us are not often exposed. Perhaps this is so because much of this history does not show "western" culture in its finest moments and is therefore often left out of the textbooks.

In this history, we are reminded of errors and misjudgments made by the American people (scientists, frontiersmen, city folk, and Native Americans alike) in our efforts to grow, learn, and position ourselves in the world. Thus, Skull Wars provides a critical service to its readership: it reminds us to always strive to improve, never to simply accept the status quo, but to always remember that what we do affects others in sometimes unexpected ways. The author also makes a powerful, yet remarkably simple observation: that in giving names to things, we can take power over them and also over how those things are understood. This is one of the central ideas underlying the whole book, as well as the Kennewick Man debate itself.

Native Americans existed in this country before modern Europeans arrived, allowing their culture and names to rule in those times. However, European culture came to dominate Native Americans in many ways. The new culture sought to appropriate and, all too often, eliminate the old. Thus, the debate began over who "owned" American history.

As is so often the case in contentious debates like this, both sides argue vehemently that they are correct - allowing no room for alternative views. Much can be lost along the wayside of such disputes as we are easily blinded by the clarity with which we see our own arguments. As these issues are also very emotional ones, feelings can further strain the situation - making us see issues in stark black and white.

That being so, the author is careful to present both sides views fairly and fully, while attempting to elucidate just what it is that makes this conflict so intense. In the end, he concludes that with respectful communication, all the invested parties can reach an acceptable middle ground and will often find that many of their goals overlap. He argues that it is possible to seek knowledge and to preserve our country's natural history while maintaining a healthy respect for traditions and the views of the people and places being studied.

If the problem is approached with this in mind, without jumping to fantastic conclusions or making attention grabbing claims, everyone can achieve a measure of success. In the end, the author seems to decide that, at its most basic level, this "skull war," reignited by the Kennewick Man, is about control and power, and not really about science, religion, or philosophy. If the scientific community and Native American groups can realize this perhaps they can begin to see ways to reach a compromise such that the "winners" won't be the only ones writing the history books.

[Liz De Coster · Rating 4 out of 5]

Unavoidably a bit dated, but a thorough and fair examination of the tension between American archaeological history/practice and the cultural rights of Indians. The early chapters seemed heavily detailed with personalities, while Vine Deloria is the main "character" in the latter section of the book; this slightly makes the book feel a little slower at the end because of the changed level of focus. I found Thomas did a good job of providing specific examples of how different Indian tribes and groups reacted to actions taken by the government and cultural institutions; it helps reinforce the argument that there is no single "Indian culture" or value set that the academy can use as fallback.

[Collie · Rating 4 out of 5]

Very informative and easy to read. Although Kennewick Man is no longer in the headlines, this book's greatest value is in providing an overview of the history of anti-Native racism in science, and how that racism has affected government policy and the relations between scientists and Native communities. I suspect that Thomas may be a little too generous towards some of the historical figures he writes about, but this is still an important book.

[Rick Jones · Rating 3 out of 5]

It covered a lot of ground, and was comprehensive in analyzing Native American conflicts with anthropology and museums. I objected to the casualness that the author attached 'social darwinism' to Darwin himself. Certainly social darwinism was at play here, but that is not what Charles Darwin meant in his evolutionary theories.

[Laura · Rating 3 out of 5]

I had to read this for grad school. Pretty good book. Gives a lot of history on how the US government and various museums treated Native Americans (poorly) and how this has now lead to a battle over Kennewick Man.

[Michele · Rating 5 out of 5]

If ever there was a book that archeologists should read this is it! Its the greatest combination of Native American history and archaeology put together. For those that don't know archaeological history, it can make or break and early archaeologist. Two words: white guilt

[Brie · Rating 4 out of 5]

Had to read this for a class. Very easy to read and get into. More of about the (disturbing) history that lead up to the Kenniwick Man controversy and the ongoing relations with Native Americans than the actual Kenniwick Man find and legal proceedings. However, it was interesting none the less.

[Foxglow · Rating 5 out of 5]

A powerful overview on archaeology in America and the insensitive way it has been handled since the beginning. It also shows how this is changing through cooperation with tribal leaders. AS easy to read a s a novel, but the sources are well documented. Excellent.

[Roseanna]

the battle is back the ultimate debate who does an ancient skeleton belog to? I still don't know for sure but the debate is raging on.

[Jaclyn · Rating 3 out of 5]

Good overview. Missing some elements. Ends before the story does.

[Kim Zinkowski · Rating 3 out of 5]

Thought provoking.

[Bob Lundquist · Rating 5 out of 5]

Ever since Columbus discovered the Americas, Europeans and their descendants have wondered where Indians came from. If Columbus did not find another route to China, what did he find and who were the people? They were not the equals of Europeans with their susceptibility to diseases, primitive weapons, and superstitious cultures. Once they were enslaved or pushed out to the way, Europeans took over. The Spaniards destroyed anything left behind by the Aztecs, Incas, and other native peoples. However, in North America, settlers started to identify with the Indians as being natural to the environment or condemned their savagery. This schizophrenic attitude developed over the centuries to a desire to study Indian society. This interest was fueled by the perception that since Indians lived so closely with nature, that they should be considered a part of nature and studied accordingly. Instead of being considered human history, they were thought of as natural history.

This attitude demeaned the dignity of the Indians so that their remains and artifacts could be studied like fossils rather than respected or honored. Indian traditions were ignored. Since the theory of evolution was developed in the middle of the nineteenth century, Indians were viewed as a lower form of mankind that did not inspire a sense of dignity. Sacred sites could be ripped up for scientific scrutiny. Early archeologists and anthropologists were ruthless in seeking out and trading or buying Indian remains such as skulls. For them, the Sand Creek massacre was a treasure trove of Indian skeletons to be catalogued and displayed in museums.

This book is a review of Indian relations with scientists as represented by archeologists and anthropologists starting in the nineteenth century. It starts with the discovery of Kennewick Man in southern Washington on the Columbia River in the town of Kennewick. It was found that the bones were about nine thousand years old. Local Indians wanted the bones back so they could be treated properly and buried. Scientists saw the bones to be too old to be related to the Indians, so the bones should be studied to see what they might reveal about their origin. After that, most of the book is taken up with a history of Indians, scientists, and government that shows how Indians and their history was run over roughshod with no honor or permission. Things very slowly improve as the parties learn more about each other. It is not until late in the twentieth century that Indians, their history, and their remains are given the respect and honor they have always deserved. The book closes on the hopeful note that things are better with examples how to move forward. Unfortunately, the book came out before the Kennewick Man lawsuits were finalized. It was only in 2018 that the bones were finally reburied by local Indians with respect.

[Amalia Wompa · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is such a heavy book, yet it's written in such plain fact that it feels almost like a textbook. Still, this plain and simple way of writing is maybe necessary to put on paper just exactly what happened between Native Americans and the prospective archaeologists of our time. I appreciate how the end is optimistic, and how both sides of "the story" are told, which I guess is why it feels like more of an informational piece than anything. Growing up, especially in the Hudson Valley, I learned heavily of the roots on which our country is based, but still, we placed blame on the Europeans, who seemed to be "not like us". Until reading this book, I didn't know how recently America had set aside Native Americans' wishes, and how differently they were treated as minorities, which is something that is still never talked about.

[Jason Freeze · Rating 4 out of 5]

I enjoyed this read, and it took me a while to make it through. I found myself taking several breaks while reading to analyse my own personal thoughts and beliefs. Few books have ever done that for me, and it was particularly powerful with this subject matter. As someone who has had a lifelong interest in archaeology, rarely have I allowed myself to be drawn into the ethical debates that surround the field. Learning more of the true history of the field has caused some shift in my beliefs, yet I still find myself believing that there is a way we can successfully understand the collected history of humanity through science. The rub is to temper the passions of the scientist and the spiritualist to work together in a way acceptable to all of those involved.

[Joelle Lewis · Rating 4 out of 5]

It was a fascinating book, no doubt. However, I am not sure he actually ever got into the point of his book, which was to discuss how to value the Indian past. He spends countless chapters discussing race, racism, the countless horrors and wrongs done to the Native Americans - of which there are too many to list - and discussing the early origins of the American Indian. However, while I thoroughly agree that the American Indians were treated abdominally, and that's putting it mildly, he never addresses the issue of how to resolve the future. This book was printed in 2000, so perhaps that is part of the issue.

[Bethany · Rating 5 out of 5]

Presents and successfully argues a clear thesis bridging the space between scientific research and political power in controlling the narrative of Native American history. Describes the knotted yarn ball of academic missteps while presenting a detailed overview of the development of American anthropology and archeology, running parallel to a general look at key political events of note, such as the implementation of the Dawes Act. Highly recommend especially for those interested, or already skeptical, of the social sciences and an objective, western approach to knowledge acquisition.

[Emily Sherriff · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a thorough and well-balanced discussion of American archaeology and anthropology and how these disciplines (and the individuals within them) have treated Native American remains and artefacts throughout American history.

[Gianna · Rating 5 out of 5]

this book is really interesting and made me very upset. the author did his job well. highly recommend!

[Mckinley · Rating 4 out of 5]

Interesting as well as informative.

[James Stripes · Rating 5 out of 5]

Very good overview of the scope of Native-White history in the United States as it impacts the study of the past, especially archaeology .

[Thomas D. Young · Rating 5 out of 5]

Must read for all archaeologists

[Ben Street · Rating 4 out of 5]

Who knew white Americans were so bad

[Remy Schultz · Rating 5 out of 5]

A chronological retelling of the history of the peopling of the Americas. Our history is distressing, the novel does a great job of exposing that truth while shedding light on all sides of later arguments-
sped through in angry-reading-fashion.

[Jade · Rating 3 out of 5]

I really liked it and recommend it for writers at all levels.