Scientists have long counseled against interpreting animal behavior in terms of human emotions, warning that such anthropomorphizing limits our ability to understand animals as they really are. Yet what are we to make of a female gorilla in a German zoo who spent days mourning the death of her baby? Or a wild female elephant who cared for a younger one after she was injured by a rambunctious teenage male? Or a rat who refused to push a lever for food when he saw that doing so caused another rat to be shocked? Aren’t these clear signs that animals have recognizable emotions and moral intelligence? With Wild Justice Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce unequivocally answer yes.
Marrying years of behavioral and cognitive research with compelling and moving anecdotes, Bekoff and Pierce reveal that animals exhibit a broad repertoire of moral behaviors, including fairness, empathy, trust, and reciprocity. Underlying these behaviors is a complex and nuanced range of emotions, backed by a high degree of intelligence and surprising behavioral flexibility. Animals, in short, are incredibly adept social beings, relying on rules of conduct to navigate intricate social networks that are essential to their survival. Ultimately, Bekoff and Pierce draw the astonishing conclusion that there is no moral gap between humans and other morality is an evolved trait that we unquestionably share with other social mammals.
Sure to be controversial, Wild Justice offers not just cutting-edge science, but a provocative call to rethink our relationship with—and our responsibilities toward—our fellow animals.
يقول علماء التطوّر إن الإنسان تعب يوماً من المشي على أربع فانتصب واقفاً على قائمتين، ومنذ ذلك اليوم، الذي يقدّر بآلاف السنين، أعلن الإنسان الأحكام العرفية في الأرض، ونصّب نفسه حاكماً ومالكاً لكل ما يدبّ عليها من حيوانات وحشرات ونباتات!
ثم ازداد الإنسان انتصاباً، حتى لم يعد يرى ما يدبّ تحت قدميه، أو ــ بتعبيرٍ أدقّ ــ يراه دون أن يكترث إن دهسه بكعب حذائه (المصنوع غالباً من جلد تمساح أو ثعبان).
فالإنسان، منذ استطالت قامته، صادر الأرض بما فيها ومن عليها، وغرس في خاصرتها لافتة كتب عليها «ملكيّة خاصة»، متناسياً أن البشر بكونهم خلفاء الله في الأرض، يجب أن يحيوا ويسمحوا لغيرهم بالعيش.
إننا نسخر دائماً من عبارة «حقوق الحيوان» التي يرددها أشخاص نعتقد أنهم مجانين، وكأننا نرفض ضمناً أن يكون هنالك حقوق لكائنات أخرى غير الإنسان، كونه ــ أي الإنسان ــ يجلس وهو يضع قدماً على أخرى وبيده سيجارة، على قمة السلّم التطوري، لكن لنتخيل لدقائق أن الأمور لم تجرِ على هذا النحو، أو جرت وفق سيناريو آخر دخل فيه طرف آخر، فلو فرضنا أنّ الجنس البشري قد صادف يوماً ما أنواعاً أخرى من الحياة العاقلة أكثر تطوّراً منه، كأن يأتي زائر من المريخ وبيده صك ملكية يمنحه حق التصرف بكل ما يملأ الكرة الأرضية، بما فيها البشر، فإن «حقوق الإنسان» ستبدو عندها أضحوكةً بالنسبة له، كما تبدو «حقوق الحيوانات» بالنسبة لبعضنا اليوم!
لكن بعيداً عن السيناريو المحتمل لقصص الخيال العلمي يجب علينا الإدراك أن كل مخلوقات الله لها قيمة وتالياً حقوق، ويجب ألا يتم التجاوز عليها وعلى حقوقها أو السخرية منها، ويجب كذلك ألا نجعلها تعاني من دون ضرورة كما يقوم بعض العابثين، إلا إذا وافق من يقطع ذيل قطة بغرض المتعة أن يأتي كائنٌ متخيل من المريخ ويبتر إحدى ساقيه، أو يحرقه حياً كما يحرق البعض ثعالب وكلاباً وقططاً، ويصورون جرائمهم وينشرونها على الملأ دون خوف من حساب أو عقاب!
ينقل مؤلف الكتاب عن العالم النفساني فيكتور نيل، زعمه أن القسوة سلوك بشري بشكل حصري، وفي تعريفه للقسوة، يقول «القسوة هي تعمّد إلحاق الأذى الجسدي أو النفسي بكائن حي، وأكثر سماته إثارة للاشمئزاز الاستمتاع الذي يتجلّى عند مقترفها». ومع ذلك لا يخجل الإنسان من تنصّله من هذه الصفة واتهام الحيوان بها (ربما لأن الحيوان لا يستطيع أن يدافع عن نفسه أمام افتراءات البشر)، فنلجأ ــ لا شعورياً ــ عند الحديث عن جريمة ارتكبها أحد أبناء آدم وحواء إلى وصفه بـ«الحيوان»، نضعها هكذا بين هلالين مزدوجين كوحش، يقبع وراء القضبان، نخشى أن يهرب، مع أننا لو فكرنا ملياً فسنجد أن الحيوان لا يخطف حيواناً آخر كي يغتصبه، كما أنه لا يقتله أو يلقيه في الصحراء بعد ذلك كما يفعل الإنسان، فلماذا نصرّ على وصف مرتكبي هذه الجرائم بالحيوانات؟
إذا كان علماء التطور يقولون إن قاعدة «البقاء للأقوى» هي التي أوصلت الإنسان إلى ما هو عليه اليوم، فإن قاعدة أخرى، هي قاعدة «البقاء للألطف» ستضمن بقاءه، فبقاؤنا مرهون بحفاظنا على حيوانات ونباتات الأرض ورعايتها.
--- كتبت هذا المقال المنشور في صحيفة الإمارات اليوم بتاريخ 26 أكتوبر 2014 بوحي من هذا الكتاب بعد انتهائي من قرائته
I have to admit that this book is completely different. I respect and appreciate the book for it's scientific subject and ethical and moral value. I found this book quite distinct from the intellectual, historical and literary books in general. The book taught me that all animals deserve respect, care, compassion and appreciation and how we all should be responsible toward animals.
In this book, Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce deliver the moral behaviors of animals and the book focuses the perceptions of animals, their behaviors, and even their emotions. Some of the scientific studies in this book contributes to refute and demolish the faulty hypothesis that entrenched in our minds for many years such as animals are less important than humans and that belief came from the idea that animals don't have the ability to think. Bekoff and Pierce provide indisputable evidence and arguments that some of the actions of animals should be classified as moral and animals do think and do have morality. Also, the book is against the prevailing idea that animals like to dominate and compete with each other. In addition, this book shows the importance of having balance between nature life and justice in the animal world.
Notice, Arab readers who are interested in the world of animals and their lives and their actions and behaviors will accept a lot of the credibility of this book beside that they would prefer the scientific studies especially the studies that done by names such as John, Edward, Michael Suzan, or William to studies that done by Fatemah, Ashraf, Ahmed, or AbdulAziz.
تُرى أي مشاهداتٍ لاحظوها على الحيوانات أدركوا من خلالها أخلاقياته؟ متحمسة لأن أعرف أكثر عن عالمٍ لم نصل بعد لـ فك طلاسم لغته، وتواصلنا معه قاصر على لغة الإشارة أو أحيانًا الارتباط الشرطي للأصوات، وفهمنا له خاضع للتماثل بين تصرفاتنا وتصرفاته..
Philosophers have pretty much judged that nonhuman animals can not act morally. On what do they base this judgment? The fact that only humans are capable of moral behavior. Well, if you define morality as something only humans have, then of course, you can say only humans are moral. That, of course, is circular reasoning. It also ignores Occam's Razor, which says that for something to be true, it can't rest on faulty hypotheses, and a priori judgements automatically fail the test of Occam's Razor.
But, why blame only philosophers? For years, scientists have claimed that animals are just a bundle of learned responses. Even before modern Behaviorists insisted that judging animals' behavior, one must always start with the premise that animals don't think or reason. Again only human animals were considered to be capable of thinking. Again, the reasoning is circular: if you define thinking as something only humans do, then you don't acknowledge the possibility thant other animals think.
At this point, I could go on and show that animals do think and do have morality. But I won't. This book and Mark Rowland's Can Animals be Moral both give plenty of examples. Moreover, you'll find incontrovertible evidence of animal thinking on my blog http://dogsandwolves-smartoldlady.blo....
Scientists with no preconceived notions to defend, have found that all social mammals have brain structures that correlate with human ones for compassion, fairness, love, and other emotions. The only thing humans have that animals don't is language, but in order to encode anything into language, yup must have thought of it pre verbally. Before you can find the words and syntax to encode in speech, you have to have had a nonverbal feeling. In fact, everything we say is first experienced non-verbally. The Executive function of the brain has to find the words and syntax that match the nonverbal thought. Humans aren't aware of what they've been thinking until it presents itself in language, but that doesn't negate the fact that initial thoughts are not in linguistic form. How could they be? Something has to decide what words and grammar to use to express what a person has decided or has been thinking.
To give you an example of how homo-centric human scholars can be, consider Descartes. He, preceding B.F. Skinner by decades, decreed that animals feel no pain. When "scientists" cut living dogs up without using anesthesia, the screaming and howling of pain was considered an automatic reflex. Why would this "automatic reflex" take the form of screaming as humans do when they are subjected to horrible pain? For centuries, however, scientists, medical doctors and just plain folk never thought to ask that question.
Just as humans are not just bundles of responses to stimuli, neither are animals.
Marc Bekoff cites data observed by impartial humans that show animals obeying moral imperatives and solving new problems without being conditioned to do so. This book like his The Emotional Lives of Animals is well written, and avoids pseudo-scientific jargon. Even if you don't share a love of animals with him--or me--you'll find a lot of thought provoking observations in this book. He sees nonhuman animals as part of a cline from non-humans to humans.The difference between me an my dogs is one of degree, not of kind. In fact, I can understand what my dogs are conveying to me because they do so much as humans do. Eye contact, moaning or happy sounds are familiar to me from raising four babies
If you're sick of novels, try this novel presentation of the moral lives of animals based upon careful, nonjudgmental observation of their actions and reactions.
Ihave to admit that I have read Mark Bekoff's works --and other works--while researching my forthcoming book, Humans, Dogs, and Civilization
What can I say about Wild Justice? Nothing great, that is for sure. I should be the target audience for Wild Justice: The Moral Lives of Animals. I hold a degree in Biology and I am a vegan on moral/ethical grounds. But I found this book to be dull, dry, slow, basic and extremely repetitive. Oh boy was it repetitive.
The preface itself is an extremely long winded summary of the book that seemed never ending. It literally seemed by the writing choices to be on the verge of ending a dozen times or so but you turn the page and it is still going and going and going. *sigh* Then you think you are going to get into the nitty gritty when the chapters start but all you get is dull repetition and bland attempts at covering the topic at hand. Circles, so many circles we traveled in. I cannot even count the number of times we were told an example was coming up only for no example to come. THEN we would be told "for example" and it wasn't even necessarily the example we were promised. At this point though I just could not come to care.
The lack of science was also a major hangup for me. The only times scientific data was even mentioned was during brief summaries of studies they noted. Unfortunately many of the studies they used employed animal testing to support the claims of empathy or other evidence of morality. For some crazy reason I just cannot get on board with injecting mice with acid to cause them incredible pain just to see how the other mice react (who subsequently also get injected). So let me get this straight, Mark Berkoff who supports animal rights uses vivisection cruelty in his book to support this philosophical crap? Way to go.
Perhaps I am not the target audience, perhaps the target audience is actually philosophy fans as this book was extremely heavy on the philosophy and extremely weak on science. It had far too much philosophy, turns out I really am not much of a fan of philosophy. Are philosophers naturally repetitive? If so I'll avoid any such topic in the future.
This book is an insomnia cure, duller than most biology and other class textbooks I've read over the years. If you enjoy reading a grad student's thesis in philosophy by all means, read this and you'll get about the same amount of enjoyment.
I was a bit disappointed with the lack of science in this book, however, the authors make no claim that it is intended to be a scientific study of morality in non-human animals. Rather, the authors, a biologist and a philosopher, intend to raise the idea of morality in non-humans for consideration in the philosophical and scientific (as well as lay) communities. Their premise is essentially (I am oversimplifying) that certain behaviors in non-humans that are called "pro-social," are labeled "moral" in humans. Therefore (they argue), why not label these behaviors "moral" in non-humans as well as humans? The book is a challenge to philosophers to begin to expand their consideration of morality to include animals, and to scientists to devise behavioral studies that more accurately reflect an animal's natural habitat (and that are more respectful of the animal's being), in order to discover how far these "moral" behaviors extend. In a sense, it is a radical little book.
The authors restrict their argument to a few animal species, including most primates, some social carnivores (specifically canids), elephants, rats and some birds. These species show behaviors that appear to be akin to some of the components of morality in humans, such as reciprocity, a sense of fair play, and altruism. As I stated above, while the authors do cite to some animal study results (and Marc Bekoff is a biologist who studies canids), the science is pretty much on the "gee-whiz" level, and the bulk of the book is devoted to their philosophical argument. So it won't satisfy anyone wanting a hard science argument before they get on board with non-human morality and its attendant right jab to the edifice of human uniqueness. I'd actually suggest reading this book along with Marc Hauser's Moral Minds, which has an entire section detailing the study of behaviors such as reciprocity, altruism, cooperation, deception, and punishment in non-human animals, for some further insight into the scientific work done in this sphere (although that's not a "science" book either).
All that said, Wild Justice is a fast, easy, provocative read, and well worth reading, especially because the study of animal minds is a really exciting field right now.
يستاهل الكتاب أكثر من ثلاث نجمات، لكن الأخطاء المطبعية فيه كثيرة ومزعجة موضوع الكتاب مازال مثار جدل لم ينته ولا يعدو الكتاب كونه تناولا للموضوع من زاوية من يرى أن الحيوانات تتمتع بمزايا أخلاقية مثل التعاون والإيثار والإنصاف والتعاطف وقد كان المؤلفان منصفين في نقلهما للرأي المغاير ومعالجة الموضوع بتجرد وطرح كل المؤاخذات على رأيهما في بعض المواضع كان الكتاب تقنيا وفلسفيا لكن قراءته لم تخل من فائدة بالنسبة لي، بل حتى أراه مرجعا في بابه
لا تُفضي البيانات العلمية حول أخلاق الحيوانات إلى استنتاج محدد حول الطريقة التي ينبغى أن نعامل بها الحيوانات أو طبيعة العلاقة التي يجب لن تربطنا يها. فالوصف العلمي، بحسب قواعد المنطق الرسمي، لا يستطع أن يولِّد ضرورة أخلاقية لا سبيل لتجاهلها. وليس هناك أسهل من أن نقول بأن «الحيوانات تتمتع بمنظومة أخلاقية»، وأن نظل في معاملتهم بالطريقة نفسها التي نعاملهم بها. ومع ذلك، فإن المنطق الموضوعي يمكن أن يفضي، بل إنه أفضى بالفعل، إلى أفظع معاملة للحيوانات من طرق شتى متنوعة. ـ
وجدير بالذكر أن الأبحاث العلمية الحديثة عن الحيوانات، إضافة إلى التربية الصناعية لها، قد حدَّدت الغاية منها وهي الوصف العلمي لطبيعة الحيوانات. ولقد تأكد منذ قديم الأزل كحقيقة علمية أن الحيوانات ليست لديها أفكار معقدة أو حياة عاطفية ثرية. وعلى ذلك، فمن المقبول أخلاقيًا، استنادًا للمنطق القديم، أن نستغل الحيوانات بالطريقة التي تحلو لنا. وكما تكشَّف لنا، فقد شهد الوصف العلمي للقدرات الإدراكية والعاطفية للحيوانات تغيرًا جذريًا في العقد الماضي، ولم يعد المنطق القديم ساريًا. والوافع أن المنطق الجديد يفرض قيودًا قوية على كيفية تعاملنا مع الحيوانات الأخرى. ـ ****
وضعتُ هذه الفقرة لأدلل على عوار منطق العلماء، فالمنطق القديم كان من الممكن أن يكون أكثر شمولًا لو كانت الأفكار الدينية تؤخذ في الاعتبار، فالأديان كلها -سماوية كانت أو وضعية- توصي بحسن معاملة الحيوان والرفق به، فكما جاء في تفسير الآية الكريمة: وما من دابة في الأرض ولا طائر يطير بجناحيه إلا أمم أمثالكم [ الأنعام: 38] :ـ قيل: [أمم أمثالكم]: يفقه بعضهم عن بعض، وقيل: أمم أمثالكم في الخلق والموت والبعث، وقال عطاء: أمم أمثالكم في التوحيد والمعرفة، قال ابن قتيبة: أمم أمثالكم في الغذاء وابتغاء الرزق وتوقي المهالك. تفسير البغوي
يحاول الكتاب استكشاف المنظومة الأخلاقية للحيوانات في إطار فلسفي وعلمي عبر ثلاثة أخلاقيات أساسية:ـ "التعاون" و"التقمص الوجداني" و"العدالة". وقد ضرب الكثير من الأمثلة المدهشة من عالم الحيوان، إلا أنني في بعض الأحيان كنت أشارك في حيرة في التساؤل البديهي: هل حقا تصرَّف الحيوان هكذا أم الإنسان هو من أسقط عليه منظومته الأخلاقية والقيمية وطريقته في التفسير؟
تنويه:ـ لقد أشار د. محمد المخزنجي للكتاب في إحدى مقالاته من قبل، وقد لاحظت في أثناء قراءة الكتاب عددا من القصص التي ذكرها في مقالاته. والمدهش بالنسبة لي هو كيفية تحويله لعدة سطور قليلة جافة وتقريرية عن موقف من حياة الحيوان إلى مقالة أدبية بديعة بها من المغزى والإشارات ما قد لا يلتفت إليه العالِم.
أخيرا، الكتاب في مجمله مفيد وممتع، رغم جمود السرد، في بعض الأجزاء وكثرة الأخطاء المطبعية والنحوية -رغم جودة الطباعة- ورغم تواضع الترجمة -كما ظهر في الفقرة السابقة- والتي تمنيت لو كانت أفضل، ولو أن المترجمة استخدمت مرادفات أفضل لبعض المصطلحات، ولو أنها استخدمت الهامش لشرح بعض الكلمات.
A worthy effort to philosophically consider the kinds of sensitivity, empathy, altruism or morality that animals display. But I felt the best and most helpful bits were the mini-stories of how animals behave. I know stories are not supposed to count in hardball scientific debate. But stories were all I cared about, all I will remember, and I think they speak louder than any philosophical argument.
This book brings together science and ethics and thus can be appreciated by a wide audience. Bekoff and Pierce challenge the anthropocentric worldview that infests so much of our thinking, especially in discussions of what sorts of beings can act morally. By inviting us to consider a scientific definition of morality from an evolutionary standpoint, Bekoff and Pierce provide indisputable evidence and arguments that some of the actions of animals should be classified as moral. As an animal ethicist and ethics professor, I appreciate this book for two major reasons: (1)it encourages us to rethink the definition of what it means to be a moral being, while drawing our attention to the fact that there are types of moral actors that fall inbetween "full blown moral agents" and "nonmoral beings", and (2) it incites us to question WHY some individuals continue to deny all of the science that supports the conclusion that animals are moral beings (the answer: to maintain a world of human supremacy). Of all the books I had read on animal ethics and animal minds, this is, without a doubt, my favorite.
هذا الكتاب يحتاج لمراجعة ، أعجبني ليس للحد الذي اقنعني لان فيه بعض الاقتباسات ، التي تدعم نظرية التطور الداروينية وان كانت ليست مرفوضة بمجملها واشير ان المترجم ربما اخطأ في بعض المواقع فبدلا ان ياتي بكلمة الطبيعة جاء بكلمة الله في موضعين على ما اتذكر وهذا كان اقتباسا عن داورين الذي على حد علمي لم يؤمن بان الله خالق هذا الكون ، الكاتب كان مترددا نعم مسالة علمية يصعب ابجزم فيها لان الابحاث ماتزال في مهدها ، خلال قرائتي للكتاب تذكرت كثيرا من الايات القرانية التي تحدثت عن عالم الحيوان مثل:"وَمَا مِن دَابَّةٍ فِي الْأَرْضِ وَلَا طَائِرٍ يَطِيرُ بِجَنَاحَيْهِ إِلَّا أُمَمٌ أَمْثَالُكُم ۚ مَّا فَرَّطْنَا فِي الْكِتَابِ مِن شَيْءٍ ۚ ثُمَّ إِلَىٰ رَبِّهِمْ يُحْشَرُونَ" ملاحظة اخيرة : ليس تثبيطا لطلب الاستزادة في العلم ولكنني كمسلمة اؤمن أن ما عجز العقل عن فهمه يفسره الوحي كما بان عجز هؤلاء العلماء عن فهم الحيوان وكاننهذا واضحا جدا في الكتاب لأن الاراء كانت غير منطقية و متداخلة ب
We often think of nature as violent and unforgiving, and indeed it can be, but there is another aspect to the lives of wild animals that we don’t as often see: one of cooperation, nurturing, even a sense of fair play. And this is not just in the species we’d expect, such as apes and elephants. We learn of a variety of surprising behavior, such as that of female bats who act as midwives, helping other bats give birth.
WILD JUSTICE is an academic book. It is not written in a broad-appeal, pop-science manner, which makes it less engaging for regular readers, despite the high interest of the subject matter. It’s on the dry side, and repeats itself throughout the chapters.
If you are familiar with the works of the likes of Frans de Waal, Edward O. Wilson, Jane Goodall, [insert name of reputed ethologist/biologist], the subject matter of this book will not come to you as a surprise. In a way, its premisse, that of animals having a sense of justice, morality, fairness, all being evolved traits, is just a given. However, when you start to read the book, you know you are not the primary target audience of its message.
The book presents its case in defense of the notion of Wild Justice, a sense of justice, morality, fairness that some social animals have, thus blurring even more the lines that separate the human animal from all other non-human animals. The case is more philosophical, or theoretical, than practical; that is, the authors rely on the works of primatologists, ethologists, biologists, etc, to draw conclusions allowing them to question the long standing assumptions that morality is an exclusive human characteristic.
The text tends to be a bit repetitive, as if taking you through a revolving door with the same idea popping up again and again. Is it intentional? Or is this the outcome of having the text composed by two separate authors? Either way, it's not as bad as it sounds. If you're unfamiliar with its subject matter, the repetitions allow to give a second (or third, fourth, ...) thought about the issues at hand.
Now, does it deserve a reading? If you are familiar with the biology/ethology field, maybe not. But if you have a philosophical bent and like to explore the ethical dimensions open up by the current consensus on the animal behavior front, than this book is for you. For in it you’ll have a good summary of the observations, experiences, hypotheses and conclusions on animal behavior research.
Really interesting concept, but a little dry and somewhat repetitive in the presentation. I think the same material condensed into a long-form article would have been more engaging. Some of the studies discussed are really interesting, and I enjoyed the last chapter which focused more on the philosophical arguments and implications of morality in animals. In the end I at least agreed with the authors' thesis that morality in animals differs primarily in degree and not in kind from human morality.
For a subject I am intensely interested in, this was an intensely dull read. Some of the anecdotes of animal behavior we're interesting but I had heard a lot of them before. I also found interesting the authors perspective on anecdotes as evidence and their defense of those who get criticised for anthropomorphising animals in biological and philosophical discussions of animals. The overall sentiment of the book is one that I can definitely get behind but I thought the writing let it down.
Published in 2009, this is quite an astonishing book setting forth the evidence for a renewed understanding of the animal kingdom beyond Darwin's "nature red in tooth and claw" to include notions
of morality such as cooperation, forgiveness, trust, empathy, and justice. Ethologist Marc Bekoff and philosopher Jessica Pierce team up to explore the scientific literature, including Marc's own years of study of animals and publications, within the framework of moral philosophy. The evidence is startling.
The evidence includes a group of elephants spending over ten years protecting an injured elephant who is only able to walk at a snail's pace and who otherwise would be killed by lions, a bat acting as a midwife helping an unrelated female give birth, a cat leading an elderly, deaf and blind dog away from obstacles to food, rats refusing to pull a lever for food when it sees that another rat receives an electric shock as a result, a male diana monkey who has learned to insert a token in a slot to get food helps a female who hasn't learnt it by inserting the token in for her so that she can get food, vampire bats sharing blood to others who were unsuccessful in finding blood, chimpanzees in a Dutch zoo punishing other chimpanzees who are late for dinner because no one eats until everyone's present, and play between wolves where a larger dominant wolf restrains himself by being submissive with a smaller wolf, biting him gently and allowing himself to be bitten in return. These are just some of the many examples of animal behaviour presented to argue the case for morality in non human animals.
The evidence suggests that animals do not simply follow instinct, but make choices and hence have cognitive abilities that allow them to be considered moral agents. Furthermore, they are guided by moral principles such as empathy for another's suffering, the maintenance of social relations, and punishment for wrongdoers, which can take precedence over satisfaction of basic needs such as for food.
The general explanation is that in order to operate better within a dangerous world (of predation, disease, competition etc), animals form social groups and function better within the group than as individuals. Moral behaviour, then, is needed to maintain the group. Thus, natural selection operates through the ability to be socia. Morality is natural. This does not involve anthropomorphism; instead, it understands human evolution as having a commonality with the animal world, but also maintaining difference: human justice is different to wolf justice etc.
The conclusions of the book have serious implications for human relations with animals and the wider habitats and ecosystems as a whole.
لم نعد الكائنات الوحيده التى تتبع الشريعه الاخلاقية كما كنا نعتقد!
هذا الكتاب يؤكد أن الحيوانات تمتلك منظومة أخلاقيه ، ويقصد به سلسة من السلوكيات التى تنظم معاملات الأفراد داخل الجماعه ، وهى كفيله بالمناسبه نحو تحقيق الاستقرار والتماسك في العلاقات الاجتماعية ، إن أهم خطوة يجب أن تقدم عليها كي تتمتع بقراءة هذا الكتاب ، هو التخلي عن الفرضية الكلاسيكية بأن الحيوانات كائنات غير أخلاقيه ، وتسميتها بدلاً من ذلك "بالمنظومة الاخلاقيه الحيوانية " او"السلوك الحيواني الاليف " لكن هذا لا يعني خلوهم من السلوكيات اللا أخلاقيه ، فهنالك حالات شواذ في عالم الحيوان ، كالغدر والعدوانية بدلاً من "التعاملات الودية" التى اكتشفت تلك الكائنات بأن الأخيره - التعاملات الودية - ذات نتائج مضمونه أكثر في تشكيل التحالفات فيما بينها بدلاً من أسلوب العنف .
كما أن القيم الاجتماعية لدى الحيوانات تختلف بعض الشيء عن البشر فما نعتبره فظاً وغير مقبول قد يكون في عالم الحيوان عكس ذلك ، بعبارة أخرى "يصبح السلوك غير أخلاقي عندما يتعارض مع التوقعات الاجتماعية الراسخه"
ان الاستنتاجات والتفاسير لم تكتفِ على المشاهده والمراقبه وانما بفضل الاستعانه بعلماء الاعصاب ومراقبة الخلايا العصبية التى تتغير نتيجه تأثر الجرذان - على سبيل المثال - بآخر يتألم ، وهذا مايسمونه ب" التقمص الوجداني"
كما ان هناك معادلة تكاد تكون ثابته ألا وهى كلما تزايد التعقيد الاجتماعي كلما كانت السلوكيات الأخلاقيه أكثر رقي وتنوع، إلا أن ذلك لا يعني بأن الحيوانات المنعزله كالنمور وغيرها تفتقر لتلك السلوكيات " فالنزعه الجماعيه والانعزال ليسا نقيضين" .
اعتبر هذا الكتاب جريء الطرح نظراً لاعتماده على الفرضيات أكثر من النظريات ، ولثقتهم على ما يفترضونه ، ولست على نقيض رأيهم !
لم يرق لي أسلوب التمهيد في كل صفحه ، وددت لو دخل في التفاصيل من دول المماطله ، تمنيت لو زود الكتاب بالكثير من الصور عن تلك التجارب والدراسات التى تحدثوا عنها ، أسلوب التكرار والابتعاد عن التفاصيل أفقد قيمة الكتاب .
اذا كان عالم الحيوان لديه القدرة على الايثار والتعاون وإن كان في معظمه للحصول على المنفعه الشخصيه ، فانها قادره على التقمص الوجداني - ادراك مشاعر الاخرين والاحساس بها- فلماذا نلقب اي تصرف لا اخلاقي يصدر من بعض البشر ب"الحيوان" ؟!
الحيوانات أكثر رقياً وحضاره ، أعتقد البعض يحتاج لأن يكون طالباً في مدرسة الحيوان !
الكتاب فيه تكرار كتير و كان ممل في بعض الأحيان, بس كان فيه إشارة لكتب لطيفة خليتني مهتمة إني أقرأها في المستقبل, للأسف ملقيتش بعض الكتب زي كتاب هال وايتهيد "أبيض بياض الأمواج: نسخة أخرى لقصة الحوت موبي ديك من وجهة نظر الحوت" ..
طبعًا الكتاب بيطرح أفكار مثيرة جدًا للإهتمام ولكن حسيت إن نصف الكتاب تكرار ولو شيلنا التكرار الكتاب هيبقى عدد صفحاته أقل بكتير وبنفس المحتوى عادي بس ملل أقل. في جزء من الكتاب ابتديت أحس إنه ممتع أكتر عشان الأفكار الفلسفية و البايولوجية اللطيفة اللي أبتدت تظهر, بس الملل اللي في باقي الكتاب خلاني أنسى اصلًا كانت ايه الفكرة اللي عجبتني فيه.
الفكرة اللطيفة إن الفروقات في "الأخلاق" وتعريفها وممارساتها بتتغير اصلًا من مجتمع بشري للآخر, ومع ذلك الناس فكرة "أخلاقيات الحيوانات الغير بشرية" تظل فكرة معتبرة شكل من أشكال الهرطقة عند ناس كتير (سواء لاهوتيًا أو علميًا حتى عند بعض الناس) لرغبتهم في التميز, بتمنى يكون فيه أبحاث أكتر في الموضوع, فالتاريخ دايمًا بيثبت قد ايه إحنا كنا (ولازلنا) جهله..
O autor introduz alguns conceitos básicos, inclusive uma ótima discussão sobre a cautela necessária nesse ramo da ciência (como os riscos da antropomorfia e de uma visão "mecanizada" do comportamento animal, onde nenhum comportamento tem relação com moralidade ou cognição). Ele então determina três comportamentos que servem de base para a moralidade: cooperação, empatia e senso de justiça. O resto do livro segue no debate filosófico e científico desses temas, com exemplos da literatura (muitas vezes anedóticos, mas o autor é bem honesto quanto a isso). Uma introdução muito boa ao Comportamento Animal/Etologia.
Il saggio, per quanto vuole essere innovativo e coraggioso, affrontando l'argomento con serietà e professionalità finisce per essere eccessivamente ridondante. Sia negli esempi che nelle tesi proposte, il tutto si poteva riassumere in una ventina di pagine con annesso gli esempi senza dover essere così eccessivamente ripetitivi. Debolezza questa che si sente molto nella lettura e che ti fa anche allontanare dall'argomento trattato, più va avanti e più ti sembra che stia girando nel vuoto. Sì gli animali possono essere agenti morali, ma sì ci sono anche testi migliori che ne parlano!
I read pretty much everything Bekoff publishes, and here, Bekoff & Pierce make a convincing case for complex cognitive and emotional responses of animals in the arena of empathy, morality, and justice.
This book challenges the assumption that morality is somehow unique to human beings. This challenge is issued through both philosophical critiques of speciesist understandings of morals, as well as by direct ethological evidence of justice in natural contexts.
Lo tenía pendiente desde el año pasado y lo leí bien rápido. Es uno de los libros más claros que he leído sobre el tema, aunque la parte final era la única que me interesaba.
Molti passaggi interessanti, tuttavia molto ripetitivo su alcuni concetti, se lo avessi letto in cartaceo mi avrebbe sicuramente annoiato di più a causa di queste ripetizioni, però in audiolibro lo Consiglio sicuramente a chi è interessato alla biologia
le premesse erano più che buone. gli autori son personaggi interessanti e l'accoppiata sembrava promettente: bekoff è un professore di ecologia, con all'attivo numerosi studi riguardanti il comportamento animale, alcuni dei suoi libri sono stati anche tradotti in italiano, ma non li ho mai letti. pierce è una scritttrice e una studiosa di filosofia. tutto faceva ben pensare, dagli autori all'argomento trattato: la moralità nel mondo animale. avendo letto già numerosi libri di etologia ero curiosa rispetto a questa sfaccettatura dell'argomento, ma devo essere onesta, mi aspettavo di più da questo libro.
il sommario è interessante: la moralità nelle società animali, i fondamenti di giustizia selvaggia, la cooperazione, l'empatia, la giustizia, posizioni contrarie alla moralità animale. ciò che lo è stato meno è la trattazione. ora devo fare un piccolo passo indietro: questi due autori sono i pionieri di questo aspetto dell'etologia. mai nessun libro è stato pubblicato sull'argomento. in effetti l'argomento è tabù nel campo etologico, sostenere che gli animali provano emozioni, empatia, che sono "etici" nel loro comportamento è qualcosa che viene detto a volte in modo ufficioso ma raramente in modo ufficiale, e quando avviene ecco che cosa accade: si afferma una cosa, poi si mettono "i puntini sulle i" puntualizzando cosa si intende, le eccezioni al caso... in pratica si dice una cosa e si nega poche righe dopo di averla detta. è la stessa cosa che è accaduta nel libro, purtroppo.
il nostro modo di vedere gli animali, soprattutto allo stato selvatico è piuttosto semplicistico, dovuto prevalentemente al modo di rappresentare gli animali in televisione: la dura legge del mondo animale, la sopravvivenza. gli animali sono istintivi, non ragionano nelle loro azioni. tutto quello che fanno è legato alla loro sopravvivenza o al massimo a quella del gruppo o della specie. tutto normale, se non fosse che ci sono animali che escono da questo schema. come si possono intendere i comportamenti altruistici al di fuori della propria specie? che motivo ha un elefante di aiutare una gazzella mettendosi in pericolo anch'esso? può essere che provi empatia, che capisca la sua paura e voglia soccorrerla? e la giustizia? gli animali hanno un concetto di giustizia? in alcuni gruppi l'elemento che "ruba il cibo" spesso viene isolato fino a quando non si adegua alle regole del gruppo. mentre questo sembra legato alla sopravvivenza del gruppo se l'elemento viene isolato anche se fa solo i dispetti o non sta al gioco, che significato può avere?
come dicevo l'argomento è decisamente interessante. per chi ha animali in casa molti dei concetti espressi sono banali, scontati. chi ha un gatto o un cane sa che quando si sta male sono particolarmente affettuosi e tendono a non mollarci un attimo, fino a che non ci rimettiamo in salute. si può chiamare empatia, affetto o con qualunque altro nome ma è una situazione in cui ci si riconosce senza troppa difficoltà. ho trovato paticolarmente interessante la difficoltà degli autori nello spiegare concetti, a volte banali, comprendendo che la loro difficoltà stava essenzialmente nel timore di essere fraintesi nell'affermare che molti animali provano sensazioni ed emozioni molto simili a quelle umane. dire che un animale prova "amore" è rischiosissimo per uno studioso di etologia, perchè significa antropizzare un comportamento animale, il che pare essere il peggior sbaglio che è possibile commettere in quel campo.
la mia sensazione (personalissima ovviamente) è che sia più un libro per gli addetti ai lavori. ricco di paroloni, riferimenti ad altri testi più tecnici (più di questo libro?!?)... per darvi un'idea la bibliografia alla fine del libro occupa più di 20 pagine! l'idea come dicevo è buona, ma gli autori hanno passato più tempo a dire cosa avrebbero spiegato (i primi 2 capitoli su 6 totali sono un continuo "come vedremo successivamente") e come, perchè, in che situazioni la loro conclusione è valida piuttosto che a raccontare episodi, casi e riflessioni sugli stessi.
non mi sento di sconsigliarlo in assoluto, per certi versi può essere interessante, soprattutto per chi ama una tipologia di libro in cui la saggistica e le definizioni la fanno da padrone, per quanto mi riguarda cercherò altri testi sull'argomento, ma meno "professionali" e più emozionali. come sempre vi ringrazio per l'attenzione!
Można powiedzieć, że napisana innymi słowami książka Fransa dr Waala "Wiek empatii". Przytoczone te same badania i kwestie. Ogólnie napisana chaotycznie i autorzy wiele razy powtarzają to samo czasem dosłownie powtarzają całe zdania co do słowa. Chyba jedyną nowością jest tam wspominanie o roli zabawy w młodości ale też nie dużo tylko po prostu wiele razy powtórzono to samo. Zdecydowanie jeśli interesuje kogoś temat to polecam Fransa de Waala. Nie warto czytać chyba, że dla bibliografii.
مارك بيكوف 1945 هو بروفيسور أحياء تطورية في جامعة كولورادو الأمريكية وله أعمال كثيرة فيما يخص علم السلوك الحيواني. جيسيكا بيرس 1965 هي أستاذة في الفلسفة في جامعة كولورادو الأمريكية ولها نشاطات حالياً في مجال علم الأخلاق الحيواني.
إن هذا الكتاب هو حصيلة تعاون السيد بيكوف مع السيدة بيرس، حيث نجد مزيجاً من العلم والفلسفة في ظاهرة فريدة قلما نجدها في الكتب ذات الموضوع العلمي وقد صدر المرة الأولى عام 2009.
مما هو واضح من عنوان الكتاب، يبدو لنا جلياً سبب إستعانة السيد بيكوف بزميلته الفيلسوفة. فكما هو معروف فإن الأخلاق ليست موضوعاً علمياً كي يتمكن السيد بيكوف وحده من الخوض فيه. ولهذا السبب فإننا نجد الفلسفة تمشي مع العلم في هذا الكتاب يداً بيد. ولكن، هل هذا صحيح ؟ ينقسم الكتاب إلى ستة فصول؛ الأخلاق في مجتمعات الحيوان، ركائز العدالة البرية، التعاون، التقمص الوجداني، العدالة، أخلاق الحيوان والناقمون عليها. ويمتد إلى 326 صفحة.
كما أشرنا سابقاً، فإن العنوان لا يشي بمادة علمية، فمنذ متى تبدأ الكتب العلمية بتقديم النتيجة، وبأسلوب فلسفي ثم تبدأ تدعيمه بالأدلة ؟ حتى الأدلة، هي ليست قاطعة. لماذا ؟ لأن تصنيف السلوك على كونه أخلاقي أم غير أخلاقي ليس له أساس علمي. مهمة العلم لا تكمن في تصنيف السلوك بل في تفسيره وشرحه. وهذا ما كان يتوجب على هذا الكتاب أن يفعله.. ولربما يلحق به كتاب آخر يقوم بمهمة التصنيف. وإن كنت أرى بأن القفز إلى النتائج دون تقديم دراسات كافية تجعلنا نفهم الكيفية أو تقدم لنا تفسيراً قاطعاً للسلوك الحيواني والإنساني سيكون ضرباً من العبث.
والأن، إلى بعض الملاحظات المهمة:
بالنسبة لي، جاءت لي نتائج الكثير من الدراسات المرفقة في الكتاب بديهية. بمعنى، لقد كنت أعلم أن الحيوانات قادرة على التعاون فيما بينها، والتعاطف مع بعضها البعض أو الآخرين وذلك من خلال تجاربي الشخصية.. ولكنني لم أفكر يوماً في أن أطلق على هذا السلوك صفة الأخلاق. فهل يمكننا أن ندّعي بأن الإنسان فاقد العقل لديه منظومة أخلاقية ؟ لقد تطرق هذا الكتاب إلى هذه النقطة في آخره.. ولكنه ترك الأمور مفتوحة مما يؤكد على عدم جاهزية الفلسفة والعلم معاً اليوم للوصول إلى نتيجة قاطعة. فإن كنا لا نستطيع التقرير بوجود منظومة أخلاقية للإنسان عديم العقل، فكيف ندّعي بقدرتنا على تصنيف سلوك الحيوان إلى منظومة أخلاقية. وقد اعترف بيكوف بذلك في بداية الكتاب.. وأن هذه ليست إلا البداية.. وإن كانت فعلاً البداية، فكيف يسمح بيكوف لنفسه القفز هكذا إلى النتائج مدعياً بأن هناك منظومة أخلاقية لدى الحيوان ؟
كي نتمكن من إطلاق صفة الأخلاق على مثل هذا السلوك الحيواني، يجب علينا أن نقيم تعريفاً واضحاً للأخلاق كما نعرفها كبشر، وليس هذا وحسب، يجب علينا أن نقوم بتفسيرها وفهم الأساس التي جاءت منه الأخلاق البشرية أولاً. ولكننا هنا بالطبع سنصطدم بالعديد من العقبات والمشكلات.. فلا توجد لدينا نتائج كافية للوقوف على تعريف أو ماهية صريحة للأخلاق.
أعجبني تفسير الأخلاق على أنها ضرورة تطورية بمعنى أنها تساعد الكائن على التكيف والتعايش مع مجتمعه. فالتعاون يعطي فرصاُ أكبر لتحقيق الأهداف المرجوة من وراء هذا التعاون، والتعاطف مع الآخرين، يكسب الحلفاء، وقد يكون صورة أخرى من صور التعاون. ولكن، ما هو التفسير التطوري للتعاطف مع المشلول الذي لا يملك ضراً أو نفعاً للآخرين ؟
إذا كانت الأخلاق منتشرة في قاعدة كبيرة من الحيوانات الإجتماعية، فلماذا الإفتراض بأنها مرتبطة بالقشرة الدماغية التي توجد لدى الرئيسيات فقط ؟ فالأولى أن تكون موجودة في مناطق أقدم تطورياً في الدماغ، كالدماغ الزاحف أو الجهاز الحوفي حسب نظرية ماكلين. وباعتقادي، أرى أنه من البديهي، أن يكون مثل هذا السلوك منظماً بشكل غريزي وبالتالي، يرتبط بمواقع أكثر بدائية من القشرة الدماغية في الدماغ.. ويبدو لي أن الجهاز الحوفي موقعٌ مثالي.
لطالما كنتُ مؤمناً بأننا لن نتمكن يوماً من فهم صحيح للكون والعالم إلا من خلال دراسة معمقة لأنفسنا ولأقرب الكائنات إلينا وهي الحيوانات.. ولا يمكنني أن أنفي كمية الإثارة التي أشعر لقراءتي لهذا الكتاب.. رغم أنه جاء مخيباً لآمالي إلى حد بعيد. على أي حال، لن يكون الكتاب الأخير لي في هذا المجال، بكل تأكيد.
Morality is conformity to a law or a set of rules. The difficulty comes in defining the law or set of rules. This author creates a moral law based on four rules, and judges certain animals’ conformity to those rules in this book. The author concludes that animals have morality because they feel empathy, treat each other fairly, cooperate, and help each other.
Attempting to define morality is unique to humans. You will never have a dog that attempts to define what a good or bad dog is—what the doggy moral law is. Dogs (and all animals) are amoral—they are not concerned with morality.
If we can agree, humans can define a moral law for dogs and judge them based on our law. We can be the moral lawgivers for dogs.
Most humans would agree that a moral dog poops in the yard and not in the house. Most humans would agree that a moral human poops in the house and not in the yard. So the set of rules that define morality may be different for animals and humans. Doggy morality is different from human morality.
Modern (and/or postmodern) philosophy tells us humans are their own moral lawgivers. Morality is subjective/relative to each human being. When there are eight billion different moral laws on earth, morality becomes a meaningless concept. (You cannot say it is immoral for humans to poop in the yard.)
If we are asking whether animals are concerned with morality, it is clear they are not. If we are asking whether they adhere to a particular set of rules, the question is, which set of rules? It must be a set of rules which humans define because animals cannot do this on their own. But if humans cannot define an objective moral law for themselves, can we define a moral law for animals? Is there a moral law floating in the aether? If there is, how did it get there?
Any moral law must be defined by a single authority, a single moral lawgiver. Humans do not agree on who that authority is, and until they do, will never agree on a moral law on which they will judge their fellow humans and/or animals.
The author says that animals have evolved to become more moral, and implies that morality comes into being through the mechanism of evolution.
The truth is that morality is not in the realm of physics, it is in the realm of metaphysics. Animals may have evolved to become more moral, but morality—if it is to have any meaning—cannot change. There is nothing physical about morality, it cannot evolve with the animals.
For the concept of morality to have any meaning there must be a moral law that is objective and unchanging. To be moral or immoral you must have the freedom to choose to follow that moral law or not. If we conclude that there is no objective moral law, and no free-will, why are we writing books about morality, a meaningless term?
Today’s premise that science can explain everything is absurd. Scientists cannot try to explain morality without sounding ridiculous. It is a metaphysical term, it is outside your realm.
Wild Justice (2009) marks a significant turning point in the study of animal behavior. At a time when moral traits such as empathy, fairness, and reconciliation were still widely regarded as uniquely human, Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce challenged this assumption by documenting morally relevant behaviors in a range of social animal species. In doing so, they offered a bold and biologically grounded account of morality as an evolved, functional phenomenon—a view that was, for its time, both innovative and provocative.
The authors adopt a pragmatic, functionalist stance: moral behavior is defined not by intention or conscious reasoning, but by its role in promoting social cohesion, trust, and fairness. This allows them to recognize “moral” patterns in animal behavior without attributing moral agency to animals. However, this theoretical move creates a conceptual tension. By expanding moral behavior beyond humans while leaving the concept of moral agency untouched, the book opens a profound philosophical question it does not fully engage: What exactly makes a behavior moral?
This tension is further illustrated in the authors’ distinction between prosocial and moral behaviors. Acts like maternal care or food sharing are labeled prosocial, while behaviors involving norm enforcement or fairness judgments are considered moral. Yet in many social species, failure to engage in expected care—such as neglecting offspring—can result in social sanctions, blurring the line between prosociality and morality. In such cases, what appears “prosocial” may carry moral weight within the group, depending on social expectations and emotional complexity.
This suggests that morality and prosociality are not distinct categories but lie along a continuum shaped by neurocognitive factors such as empathy, memory, and Theory of Mind. Rather than asking whether animals “have morality,” we might ask how various moral components are distributed across species. This scalar view aligns with sentimentalist traditions in moral philosophy—from Hume to Haidt—that see moral judgment as arising not from rational deliberation but from evolved affective responses.
Ultimately, Wild Justice opens the door to a radical rethinking of moral ontology, suggesting that morality may not begin with reflective agency but with biological systems that enable social living. Yet the authors stop short of crossing that threshold. Their reluctance to redefine moral agency or challenge human exceptionalism leaves a conceptual gap: if morality can exist without intent, then how tenable is our belief in uniquely human moral autonomy? The book’s strength lies in asking this question; its limitation is in leaving it unanswered.