Crossroads: A Popular History of Malaysia and Singapore

by Jim Baker

Hard to find

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Asia

464 pages, Paperback

First published September 7, 2014

Reviews

[Whitaker · Rating 4 out of 5]

Baker covers the history of Malaysia and Singapore, situating their histories within the wider context of the region. The title, Crossroads, sums it up well. Referring to the wider area making up now the nation states of Malaysia, Borneo, Indonesia and Singapore as the “Malay Mediterranean”, he focuses on how the geographic position of the region, in the middle of global trading networks with China at one end of the global trading chain and first India and later Europe at the other end has made it an important entrepot in all times. Its location in the middle of this chain also made it an important prize among the European powers seeking to outcompete each other in trade.

Baker covers how great power politics and trade in Europe had an impact on the divvying up of the region among the European powers. I found this perspective to be particularly interesting. For example, he discusses how at the end of the Napoleonic war, the British felt the need to support a strong Netherlands as a counterpoint to French power. To this end, the British government thought that it was necessary for the Netherlands to have a colonial empire. This meant the British giving back the Indonesian islands that it had captured from the French back to the Dutch. Singapore was Raffles attempt to get around that and its founding as a British entrepot in 1819 was against British government policy. However, the diplomats in Britain and Europe dickered for a long time about how to deal with this. And during that time British trade through Singapore went from $400,000 in 1819 to $22 million in 1925, far outstripping Penang ($8.5 million) and Melacca ($2.5 million). By that time, there was no question of handing over such a prize to the Dutch.

Unsurprisingly, Baker is better with the earlier centuries as once you get into the 1950s to the present day, there isn’t enough of a long view to go on and the chapters read like a decent but superficial and rushed overview of the current affairs of the day. He also loses his international focus, looking mostly at local politics in Malaysia and Singapore. Nevertheless, I was happily bemused by the pertinence of this work when I opened today’s papers to read an article on the unhappiness of the rural community in Malaysia (who are almost all also Malay) with the Malaysian national rice agency and how that might swing the upcoming Malaysian elections. Among other things, Baker discusses how the British forced the Malays into purely agricultural work (when they had previously also been merchants prior to the coming of the colonial powers) in order to better monopolise trade for its own people; its lasting impact on racial distribution in trades in Malaysia continues to poison and sway political decisions to this day.

While this does not have the heft and magisterial scope of Ferdinand Braudel’s works on the Mediterranean, for the layperson seeking to inform themselves more on the history of the region and how its affairs of today bear the mark of its history, it’s a very good and informative read.

[Alex Zakharov · Rating 3 out of 5]

Economic-flavored history of the region from pre-colonial period to today. A great bonus of reading a history by an economist is a constant awareness and evaluation of trade-offs. Naturally, considering trade-offs and counterfactuals is bread-and-butter of any respectable economic analysis, and if we are lucky it should also translate into other areas as well (culture, politics, history). And with Jim Baker we are indeed that lucky. For example you get a non-hysterical analysis of British colonial legacy for both Malaysia and Singapore and it is instructive to see differences in their subsequent development, both with respect to each other and relative to the rest of the region. Baker also doesn’t shy away from looking at various group, cultural and religious differences. It is no secret that the history of Malaysia and Singapore is heavily modulated by race relations, and it is educational to compare Malaysian and Singapore policies and their effects, both before, during, and after colonization/independence.

Notes to self (aka an attempt to plug-in future memory holes):

Colonization trajectory: Muslims in Melaka (12c-14c), Portuguese in Melaka (15c-16c)
- 17c: Dutch/VOC kicked out Portuguese and also settled Batavia (part of Indonesia now).
- 18c: temporary rise of Bugis (one of local population groups) but eventually succumbed when confronted Dutch explicitly. Johor.
- 19c: Brits/EIC need port for opium trace with China. Setup Penang first, later became a model for Melaka and Singapore.

Singapore trading post established by Raffles (1819) through political maneuvering with Dutch and Sultan of Johor.
- Modulation of Dutch and British relationship in SE Asia via France, an enemy to both in Napoleonic wars.
- 1825 Anglo-Dutch treaty splits the region diagonally through Melaka Straits into today’s Malaysia and Indonesia.
- Brits colonization style even under EIC (known for relative law and order) was preferred by the locals as evidenced by constant migration from Dutch to British settlements.

Till mid 19c Singapore as sin city under EIC, but after Suez canal massively opened up trade in the region Singapore became too strategic to Britain and was converted to a crown colony: laws, civil service, infrastructure build up. Growth of tin and rubber industries in the region.

British policies:
- “Non-intervention” till 1875. Constant friction between Chinese criminal factions, Malays, Siam foreign policy and various Sultans’ preferences. Inconsistent and unpredictable responses by British in mitigating territorial disputes and access to tin/rubber plantations.
- Switch to “indirect rule” in 1875: British assign “resident advisors” to the Sultans in exchange for financial incentives and development help.
- 4 southern peninsula states get incorporated quickly, northern peninsula states trickier while trying to mitigate Brits’ relationship with Siam and French Indochina in the north. German threat. 1909 Anglo-Siamese treaty in Bangkok.
- Odd federated system but somewhat successful, allowed British to indirectly run economy and provide political stability while Sultans ran culture and preserved “traditional” values.

British effect on Malaysia:
- modern state, tin/rubber industry, infrastructure, rule of law, education, health, but also opium.
Mixed legacy of Malay-Chinese-Indian race-aware policies. Tradeoff between preserving “traditional” values for Malays and economic development.
- Malays outcompeted by Chinese. Some policies did promote group differences but some probably reflected them.

20th century context for Singapore:
- Malaysia-British-American trade. Minor effect of US 1920-21 depression, significant effect on exports during Great Depression.
- Tensions between Straits British-educated Chinese and migrant mainland-education Chinese.
- China, Chiang Kai-shek republic, and spillover of nationalism into Singapore. Later communist influence.
- Massive demographic change in 20-30s. Immigration quotas on Chinese men, but women allowed, family formation, migrant become immigrants.

1941 WW2 Japanese occupation of Singapore. Catastrophic loss of British prestige.
- Japan invaded China in ’31 and ‘37, so Chinese in Singapore got the worst of atrocities.
- Early in occupation odd pro/anti Japan factions among Indians, Chinese and Malay, but by the time British return in ’45 they are almost treated as liberators (similar to Burma btw!).
- Post-war self-awareness as a nation, Eventual independence is inevitable.
- Post-war: low-grade fighting with Chinese communists (Singapore), and an actual 12Y civil war between guerilla Chinese communists and British-backed Malay police in Malaysia.

45-57 Paths towards independence:
- Malaysian . Ethnic policies are key. Malays are original “locals” but outcompeted by Chinese.
- Explicit policies to favor Malays in gov’t. Indians often get worst deal, outcompeted by Chinese but no special treatment…
- ’57 independence - ruling gov’t coalition heavily favorable towards Malays, but Chinese and Indians become real citizens, with some representation in gov’t.

- Singapore too strategically important to British to be on same timeline for independence as Malaysia.
- Rise of Lee Quan Yew and PAP party. Uneasy political convenience of socialist-leaning mainland Chinese and Straits “liberal economy” Chinese. Eventually blows up and splits up. Complicated political bickering and maneuvering. Communists in and out prison.
- Demographically 75% Chinese, hard-working ethos, semblance of economic parity between Chinese, Malays and Indians, certainly relative to Malaysia.
- Investment in education, housing. Housing – social engineering of forced racial integration that actually worked!

Union and fallout.
- Lee campaigns for union with resistant Malaysia. 1963 - an uneasy federation of peninsula states plus Sarawak, North Borneo and Singapore.
- But ’65 Singapore kicked out of the union, primarily over demographics. Race riots in both Singapore and Malaysia. Rest of federation is today’s Malaysia.
- Regional opposition: from Philippines over claims to Northern Borneo territory; and an Indonesian protest, calling Malaysia a Western puppet and then failing to land any of its 4-plains in a comical fiasco of an “invasion”.

65-90 Malaysia. After Singapore fallout and race riots, even more pro-Malay policies, especially after pro-Chinese party did reasonably well in elections. Affirmative action on steroids.
- Top down economic racial policies. Predictably, patronage is running amok, Malays as “political capitalists” – often paid to be in the companies to fulfil racial quotas, but Chinese are the ones running the business. Chinese aren’t marginalized economically despite being heavily discriminated against. Still, overall economic growth despite the policies.
- Rise of Islam, filling the void left by slowly eroding traditional Malay values.
- By late 90s share of Chinese population drops to 30%, attributable the classic birth rate dip with rising income, plus emigration outwards due to policy. No longer pose political threat.

’97 Asian financial crisis underscores corruption, inefficiency and crony capitalism in Malaysia. Thailand’s fix via liberalization of economy and stabilizing currency(successful), while Malaysia chooses massive gov’t spending (not a great recovery…).
- Moderate-conservative Islam, race, and urban-rural axis of internal tensions.
- Political “tsunami” in 2008, and confirmed in 2013. Realization that affirmative action, gov’t spending and subsidies aren’t conducive to modernity and globalization. Calls for reform.
- Islam and dual judiciary – family courts and civil courts. But 40% of population not Muslim! Can’t work.
“Allah” controversy. Christians are forbidden to use certain words (e.g.“Allah”) if speaking/writing Malay? Because Muslims may get confused and converted?! Borneo more Christian than peninsula with funky side-effects.

65-90 Singapore. Shock after being kicked out, compounded by British leaving, is calling for some serious rethinking for a small vulnerable Chinese state in Malay lands.
- One-party state, need for strong national identity.
- Military training and advice by Israelis (Muslim Malaysia unhappy), universal draft, national consciousness.
- Social contract: economic growth, but restriction of personal/political/press freedoms.
- Make itself even more attractive to trade and investment - breakup of unions, hard-working skilled workforce.
- Highly competent and well-paid civil service and gov’t.
- No welfare state but gov’t does provide/subsidize housing, education and health.
- Attempts at demographic control via birth-rate policies. Aging population issues.

’97 financial crisis – Singapore with its liberal capitalism/illiberal democracy model fared much better than rest of region.
-21st century Singapore is a full member of developed nations club and competition is tough.
- Education reforms: encourage creativity over rote memorization, invites Western universities.
- Educational reform begat social reforms and less restrictions on social behavior.
- Immigration is encouraged to help with aging population and low birth-rate.
- Rising income inequality and demands for stronger safety net.
- Policies still stay race-neutral and race-aware at the same time. Employment encouraged via US Wisconsin model (rewarding poor for work). Self-reliance in ethnic communities encouraged, acknowledges but neutralizes race by conflating it with culture and language.
- Increased cooperation with US, favors US presence in the region.

[J.M. Hushour · Rating 4 out of 5]

For the two or three of you who care, this is the latest book in a now years-long attempt to read a history of every goddamn country in the world. A lot of places have shitty histories. Some stand out, though, like this one. If you know diddly about Malaysia/Singapore, this would be a good, layman's place to start.
"Crossroads" is one of those rare histories that doesn't get bogged down in some weird, shunty area study like economics or gender or whatever and just plays nice as straightforward, pleasant narrative. Although it does lose its steam a little once it gets to independence--largely a function of the myriad, confusing political parties--Baker's book manages to intertwine the entangled histories of Malaysia and Singapore with refreshing neutrality (he refuses to treat them as separate entities). He has a nice relaxed approach and never gets shrill. Plus, there's a crapload of maps, which always makes histories much more fun to read.

[Joshua Crebo]

The author dithers a bit in the last chapter, but overall this was an well-written, informative read. Baker focuses primarily on the periods of British colonialism and modern day independence, only briefly touching on the ancient Malay kingdoms. He also emphasizes the economic and political developments and challenges that Malaysia and Singapore continue to face today.

[C. Adam Volle · Rating 4 out of 5]

I don't think any other general history of a country I've read this year has left me feeling I had a better grasp of the subject matter - and I began reading it almost completely ignorant.

[Chuer · Rating 5 out of 5]

Read for my upcoming trip to Malaysia.
Good overview regarding the diverse ethnic makeup of the region and the role of British colonialism in reinforcing racial and economic divide. It's interesting to compare the two mixing pot countries of Singapore and the United States. Singapore's authoritarian rule following its separation from Malaysia to construct a national identity contrasts with the America's prioritization of individual liberties/expression over mass economic good. Admittedly, Singapore also had economic motivations because it needed to portray itself as a stable country good for foreign investment---something the US did not necessarily have to do because of its economic prosperity.
The Portuguese taking of Melaka in 1511, the Dutch transition (along with their religious indifference compared to the Portuguese), and the eventual British resident system left resounding marks on Malaysia and I am looking forward to visiting the famous port.
The three-generation Brooke family rule of Borneo shaped the region's economic standing in Malaysia after it gained independence and had longstanding consequences. Baker claims that there was a general 'affection but not respect' for the indigenous population at the time so that the residents prioritized the people's preservation of their culture. The indigenous Malays had strong connections to their land so their place, as determined by Brooke, was to work in agriculture. Chinese immigrants took the place of retail/merchants in the hierarchy and the Europeans were of course at the top. The inequality which began in the early days became systemic due to the way that the admin/civil service was set up and evolved into the key issue as both Malaysia and Singapore became countries of their own.
The British owning 1.5 million/2 million acres of the rubber crops is preposterous.
The Japanese occupation of Malaysia and Singapore was violent and economically incompetent. Without the British admin infrastructure and competent leaders, there was extreme inflation and the currency collapsed. The Japanese also violently targeted the Chinese population.
The many many parties (MRLA, UMNO, PAP, SSP, etc.) are a bit jumbled in my head after finishing the book but I'll be bringing it along the trip to enliven my learning.
Key industries: rubber, tin, jungle timber (Borneo)
Population: indigenous Malays, Peranakan Chinese (settled in 15th century), Chinese, Indian, British
Key dates:
1400 – Founding of the Sultanate of Malacca by Parameswara, becoming a major regional trading hub.
1511 - Portuguese take Melaka
1641 - Dutch capture Melaka (Johor empire dominates region)
1786 – 1786 - Francis Light establishes Penang on behalf of the English Trading Company (George town is named after King George III)
1824 – Anglo-Dutch Treaty divides spheres of influence: Britain gets Malaya and Singapore; Dutch get Indonesia; Stamford Raffles establishes Singapore as a British colony
1948 – Federation of Malaya established; start of the Malayan Emergency (guerrilla war against communists).
August 31, 1957 - Federation of Malaysia declares independence from the British
1965 - Singapore separates from Malaysia

[John Collings · Rating 4 out of 5]

Singapore is one of the last city-states that exist in the world today, and when you visit, the major question of how did this bastion of the world economy come into being. It is the history of this unique place in the world that first attracted me to this book, and I am glad I looked at it from the perspective of Jim Baker and not some other historian. The history of Singapore is not exclusively about Singapore but also about its closest neighbor, Malaysia. By understanding the history of both places, I was able to wrap my head around the ways of this part of the world, and Baker does a good job of not always being sympathetic to the Western countries that helped to shape this part of the world. He also goes into speculation about how things would be different now if certain events in history had happened a different way. It is all told in a well-written piece that is engaging as much as it is informative. I did enjoy the first half of the book better than the second because the later part involved itself too much in the political battles that were going on in both countries, but it is understandable due to the fact that these countries have had a rather peaceful existence after the fight against communism took place shortly after World War II. The book still helps gain understanding about this part of the world, and would highly recommend anybody visiting this area to read this book so they can appreciate what they are seeing a little better.

[Rebecca · Rating 3 out of 5]

This was recommended as the primary history work on Malaysia and Singapore, and I guess it is. With the daunting task of covering some 12 000 years of history, it does a good job of a sort. Everything is in there (I guess?), with good maps and very detailed accounts of many complicated events and the large economical movements that shaped the direction of politics etc.

However, it is also a quite difficult read. I mix up the people involved, can't really get a grip on the geography, and overall the great level of detail hides the larger historical movements. The bits that cover the latest 20 years or so are definitely too long, this is not history yet and should not be covered in a history book. Also I can't shake the feeling that the author is quite opinionated - sometimes the account does not feel entirely neutral.

A good read if you are specifically interested in the history of this region, but no need to read if you are just looking for a general history book.

[Andrei Brinzai · Rating 4 out of 5]

Following the reopening of the land borders between Malaysia and Singapore on April 1st and because I have visited these two amazing places, I decided it is time to learn a bit more about this area of Asia. I had some general knowledge of history, I know and have visited many of the tourist attractions, I can get from point A to point B pretty easily, but I wanted to learn more than this.

In this respect, the book really delivered. I feel like I have a better understanding of these places and the people, the things that bring them together and the animosities. It's really a great book, but sometimes it becomes a bit difficult to follow due to the large numbers of acronyms (or rather similar acronyms). The book covers events up to about 2008, so now I need to find some articles or another book to fill the gap up to present time.

[Erik Champenois · Rating 3 out of 5]

A great overview of the history of Malaysia and Singapore from older times till today. Most of the book covers the 19th and 20th centuries but also leads up to the 21st century. My main critique is that modern day figures are not covered in depth as earlier figures were - it would have been nice to have had a more in depth biographical understanding of people like Lee Kuan Yew and Mahathir bin Mohamad, for example. But the author intentionally shied away from giving too concrete of a take on more recent events. Still, a very readable and informative history recommended to anyone interested in the region.

[Krayfish1 · Rating 3 out of 5]

This is a good overview text. Heavier emphasis on more recent history, vast majority of the book is post 1824.

Got a better picture of royalty in Malaysia, why the railroads are built up on the west side, where tin and rubber development happened and didn't.

Learned that Sarawak was ruled by a British family who held the position of raja for ~100 years because Britain didn't actually want to rule that area, but the navy wouldn't abandon its citizen. Learned that there are more Christians in Borneo than peninsular Malaysia due to missionary activity.

[David Mihalyi · Rating 5 out of 5]

A remarkable book. It goes through the intertwined history of these two countries, giving a multi-faceted account on the role of geography, mixed ethnicity, colonial legacies played it shaping them. The discussion of the more recent history feels quite even handed, celebrating the incredible economic growth achieved but also critically discussing the dark side of political authoritarianism and ethnic rivalry. I read it while visiting Malaysia and Singapore and the book made my trip so much better.

[Tansy Hepton · Rating 4 out of 5]

A thorough, well researched and well written history. There were a couple of drier sections (particularly the more recent politics) but the analysis of how geography, colonialism and migration have shaped these countries is fascinating - and gives food for thought about how other countries and cultures have developed. The maps are a great help; the one extra appendix I would have liked was a list of the political party acronyms.
My version was the original so I'm going to find a new edition to catch up on the last 30 years.

[Doug Witzig · Rating 5 out of 5]

A must read for anyone living and working in Malaysia and Singapore. The book has proven its staying power: first published in 1999, the author released the fourth edition in 2020.

If you don't have time to read accounts of history from hundreds of years ago, the final two chapters on 21st century Malaysia and 21st century Singapore are worth the price of the book.

I love this quote from the Preface to the First Edition: "The Malay Peninsula is an area where not only has the East met the West but also where the East has met the East - a true crossroads."

[Joshua Reitano · Rating 4 out of 5]

Jim Baker is a history and economics teacher at the Singapore American School. Having lived in the region most of his life, he is the perfect person to write an English language popular history of Malaysia and Singapore. I got lost in the weeds a bit on some the discussions of various political parties, but I learned about Malaysia in preparation for a trip to Kuala Lumpur. Glad to have found this book before my trip.

[Luke Eure · Rating 3 out of 5]

Skimmed it because I was planning to travel to Malaysia and Singapore (didn't end up happening). Good as a general history of Malaysia and Singapore - the long history of the Malay people, the strong influence from Indian subcontinent on societal structure, the importance of the Malaka Straight in shipping, and then the creation of Singapore as a separate state. Recommended to anyone traveling there.

[Daniel Deak · Rating 1 out of 5]

The book is not correct factually. I got suspicious about the author while reading the generalisations and simplifications about historical events, which I think is problematic in itself. I finished the book when he wrote Magellan was murdered in the Philippines as a retaliation to mass rape of the islanders. I looked it up and this statement is totally false. Avoid this book!

[Georgia Kapitsaki · Rating 4 out of 5]

Describes the history of Singapore, Malaysia mentioning also areas in the region, like Borneo. Very easy to read for a history book, this is the main plus of the book. Helps in understanding the current position of Singapore, and of Malaysia.

[Guilherme · Rating 4 out of 5]

Easy introduction to the history of both countries with some opinionated views about some facts. I particularly enjoyed the author's perspective of the Japanese invasion of Singapore which is not about the English being stupid, but about the Japanese outsmarting the English.

[Tom Burden · Rating 4 out of 5]

The first half of the book was fascinating and really well written, I didn't enjoy the second half of the book due to the focus on the political history of the region but that's probably more down to my lack of interest in that area

[Michael · Rating 5 out of 5]

SE Asian History

This book provides an easy to read background for the history of Malaysia and Singapore. Comprehensive and informative with good case studies

[Jennifer · Rating 5 out of 5]

Baker taught me more about Singapore and Malaysia than I thought possible. Amazing book!

[Ben · Rating 3 out of 5]

solid history of the malaya region but perhaps most useful as a companion to or "separate opinion" on lee kuan yew's memoir

[Paige Kilian · Rating 4 out of 5]

Fascinating.The post- independence narrative gets a bit complicated due to the myriad political parties (the acronyms alone are overwhelming!) - but he manages to keep it accessible.

[Kavee Yong · Rating 5 out of 5]

Fluid storytelling and the book does cover the trickiest political topics that still exist today

[Kevin Fulton · Rating 4 out of 5]

Well worth reading if you are going to travel through Malaysia (Has some info on Singapore as well).
It provides a political history and shows how racial tensions have played a significant role in Malaysia’s culture and politics.

[Uwe Hook · Rating 4 out of 5]

Crossroads provides the reader with an in-depth historical perspective of Singapore and Malaysia from the perspective of an American who has spent most of his life living and working in Singapore. Jim Baker provides succinct, poignant, and entertaining read of the area in a fashion reminiscent of Mitchner from an historical standpoint - he starts at that very beginning and brings you to the present.

Baker does a very good job of delivering a comprehensive history of the Malay Peninsula. Crossroads covers all of the aspects of the development of the people and the culture of the area from 2500 BC forward to 2008. He touches the aspects of religion, culture, migration and in the case of Holland and Britain, ruling the country or at least portions of it. Crossroad's accentuates the impact of the "Chinese Invasion" and its impact from supplying a major workforce to the impact of the Chinese gangs, opium dens, prostitution and crime. Baker develops the impact the Chinese language had on the legacy Malay language as well as the customs, as it provides a constant reminder of the continuing racial separation of the country.

Crossroads is an important historical document showing the critical influence of the most important facet of the region - it is a crossroads. The world now sees Singapore and Malaysia as a primary crossroad for commerce and trade. A simple, humble beginning has been rewarded in the evolution of this area to a primary player in the world scene. Singapore is regarded as a trade and cultural center positioned between India and China. As well, Kuala Lumpur is a shining testament to the enduring efforts to bring the area to prominence. Baker provides a detailed account of the area punctuated by stirring events that mark Malay as a "must visit" location for the global traveler.

[teohjitkhiam · Rating 5 out of 5]

Being my second read-through, I stand by my initial impression & review made back in 2018. This is a must read for my fellow Malaysians interested in a short but relatively objective history of our nation, closely tied to that of Singapore's as well. Jim Baker, being neither Malaysian nor Singaporean, Malay nor Chinese, will prove to have no axe to grind in his observations regarding past & contemporary events surrounding both nations intertwined histories. The book greatly dispels ethnic stereotypes & historical revisionism long held by populace from both sides of the Causeway, and in particular intra-ethnic interactions & the history of Malaya from the 12th to 19th century. #Goodreads

[Ricardo · Rating 4 out of 5]

Recommend it to anyone seeking to understand the region, and the errors the outside world often makes when arrogantly trying to "teach" others how to live and how to "protect" their traditional lifestyle...

[Jill · Rating 4 out of 5]

An excellent introduction to the history of this complex region. Great introduction for travellers who want to know more about Malaysia and Singapore.