Indian Philosophy: Volume I

Indian Philosophy #1

by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

This classic work is a general introduction to Indian philosophy that covers the Vedic and Epic periods, including expositions on the hymns of the Rig Veda, the Upanisads, Jainism, Buddhism and the theism of the Bhagvadgita. Long acknowledged as a classic, this pioneering survey of Indian thought charts a fascinating course through an intricate history. From the Rig Veda to Ramanuja, Radhakrishnan traces the development of Indian philosophy as a single tradition of thought through the ages. The author showcases ancient philosophical texts and relates them to contemporary issues of philosophy and religion. This second edition with a new Introduction by eminent philosopher J.N. Mohanty, highlights the continuing relevance of the work and the philosophic tradition it represents.

Genres: Philosophy, India, Hinduism, Nonfiction, Religion, History, Buddhism

664 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1923

About the author

Bharat Ratna Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was an Indian philosopher and statesman. He was the first Vice-President of India (1952–1962) and subsequently the second President of India (1962–1967).

One of India's most influential scholars of comparative religion and philosophy, Radhakrishnan is thought of as having built a bridge between the East and the West by showing that the philosophical systems of each tradition are comprehensible within the terms of the other. He wrote authoritative exegeses of India's religious and philosophical literature for the English speaking world. His academic appointments included the King George V Chair of Mental and Moral Science at the University of Calcutta (1921-?) and Spalding Professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics at Oxford University (1936–1952).

Among the many honours he received were a knighthood (1931), the Bharat Ratna (1954) and the Order of Merit in 1963. His birthday is celebrated in India as Teacher's Day.

Reviews

[Nandini Goel · Rating 5 out of 5]

"Indian Philosophy" by S. Radhakrishnan, the second president of India, beautifully depicts the transition of Indian Thought from Rig Veda to Ramanuja. The reason why Indian Philosophy is regarded as one of the best around the world is due to its progressive nature of transforming itself according to the needs of the present time. Also, it is one of the few philosophies, which recognize the three states of human: conscious, unconscious and subconscious.

Indian Philosophy can be broadly divided into the following periods:
a) Vedic Period: 1500 BC to 600 BC
b) Epic Period: 600 BC to 200 AD
c) Sutra Period: 200 AD onwards
d) Scholastic Period

The Vedas are the earliest documents of human mind that we possess. They consist of hymns to be sung at sacrifices. There are four vedas, namely, Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. Each Veda is divided into three parts: Mantras, Brahmanas and Upanisads.
Mantras are the hymns to be recited. There collection is known as "Samhita".
Brahmanas are the precepts and religious duties while Upanisads and the Aranyakas are the concluding portions of Brahamanas which discuss the philosophical problems.
While the Brahmanas provide the religious duties of a householder, the Aranyakas serve as objects of meditation for those who resort to forests in their old age.
The Upanisads focus on ideals like Karma. The Law of Karma is the law of the conservation of moral energy. In simple words. "We reap what we sow."

The author then discusses about the materialist philosophy. Materialist are those people who believe in the non-existence of soul and after life. They believe that, "Its an error of Judgement that leads to the assumption of another world. There is no world other than this, neither heaven or hell. Religion is a foolish aberration, a mental disease. A god is not necessary to account for the world"
The materialists donot believe in the philosophy of Karma. This philosophy was laid down by "Caravaka"

Jainism is another philosophy which is long existent in Indian Society. Jainas are the followers of Jina, the victor, a title applied to Vardhamana, the last prophet of the Jainas. Vardhamana is also known as Mahavira. The philosophy however was founded by Risaba. The prophets in Jainism are known as Tirthankaras. The Jainas divide the knowledge into five kinds: mati, sruti, avadhi, manhaparyaya and kevala. Jainas donot believe in the existence of a Supreme Being but only in the cleanliness of soul. The main aim of Jainism is the liberation of Soul.

The book then also discusses about the establishment of Buddhism, its teachings and how and why it has become successful in the modern day.

The book also discusses about the various deities of the Vedic and Epic Period and how cults like Vaisnavism and Shaivism started. During the Vedic Period, Hiranyagarbha and Prajapati were regarded as the creator of the world. Indira, the lord of sky, rain and thunder was regarded as the king of gods and the father of the whole world. He was compared to Zeus. During the Epic Period, Shiva, earlier referred to as Rudra in the Rig Veda was endowed with the title of Pashupatinath. Krisna and his life has been discussed elaborately in the book.

The Indian Philosophy has always been related to science. Where Aryans not only developed a sun god for the day but also an invisible sun god of the night, Savitr. This proves the fact that Aryans believed that sun didn't disappear during the night. The ten avatars or incarnations of Vishnu have also been in order where first comes the fish, "Matsya" (just like aquatic animals came first). Then, a man like that of Prehistoric times with an ax (Parsuram), then a settled warrior and herdsman (Krishna). Later came Buddha, a preacher of Peace. At the end, we will have Kalki, who will work on destroying the evil when it will be out of control and reconstruct an era of peace.

All the activity that happens in our world is due to two forces, Purusa(man) or Prakriti(Nature). Purusa has acquired intelligence, while Prakriti has acquired matter.

It was indeed an educating book with a lot of insight on Indian Philosophy.

Regards
Nandini Goel

[Kamakana · Rating 4 out of 5]

210416: dense and deliberate. this is a historical document (1923), of english academic style, though i do not know how significantly different is current understanding of indian philosophy. i have grown up more or less a-religious, but in a nominally christian society, so have no sense of either the original texts eg. vedas, upanishads, epics, or the usual human corruption of faiths eg. brahmanism and caste, buddhism and dissolution, and no idea of more contemporary thinkers...

i found it very useful on vedas and upanishads- even jains- as my original study of indian thought always begins with buddhism, and of that mostly the philosophy of the four noble truths, the eightfold path, the schism between theravada and mahayana, the original diffusion of thought throughout asia, but the argument is that such dharma (teachings) grew organically even when revolutionary, out of indian culture eg. upanishads, that unsurprisingly the person of the buddha was soon imagined superhuman, divine, avatar, that his teachings were oral and only recorded years later- but with such consistency of thought if not event that there is not much dispute of the core diagnosis, teachings, path...

there is a lot of information given. i now know better the mahabharata and ramayana, i now have a better sense of development of somewhat unified 'indian' culture, development and some apology for caste (could have just killed the defeated), the attempt to find monotheism in brahma, and by this recount it certainly seems obvious why buddhism has declined as a religious force, as it is both too 'cold'? (the pali texts) and too diffuse and adaptive to local traditions (mahayana), such that either case does not suggest comforting metaphysical pictures needed to make a religion appeal (more a psychological assertion than philosophical claim). from what limited reading and here in comparison, i can see why rises in conflict the ways of brahma- we are all brahmin and this is a specific, wondrous being we must discover, through acts, faith, thoughts- and the ways of buddhism- the world is a cycle of pain, we are essentially empty, we are of 'dependent origination'... though both ways incorporate karma and ethical rules...

on the other, after slamming buddhism the author does attempt to recount the various schools of thought, from something like materialism, idealism, does try to explain nagarjuna's genius (someone to read again), and uses that great 'four limbs' logic, rather than simple is, is not, excluded middle- the distinction between 'conventional' and 'ultimate' knowledge that is or is not, or both is and is not, or neither is or is not... and on the other this is only volume 1, so i have more reading to do...

also encourages me to learn more advaita vedanta…

[Simone Roberts · Rating 4 out of 5]

Got a philosophical question? India got there first. The two vols by Radhakrishnan and several other "short" introductions to the traditions of the subcontinent are my intro course for the next book.

SR makes some great jokes when linking lines of argument and observation in India's traditions to the works of European philosophers. It sounds like after learning his whole tradition, the Euro stuff was a nice review. A refreshing turn of the table.

[Viji (Bookish endeavors) · Rating 4 out of 5]

A comprehensive work on Indian philosophy, with even the basics covered.. You don't have to worry if you don't know anything, you can go straight into it.. Because everything is explained word by word.. And that too, like notes. And that itself is the main problem with this book. Reading it is much time-consuming since it is unnecessarily elaborative for a regular philosophy reader.. It's definitely not something I'd suggest to a student for first reading. It will make you bored like anything. But if you want clarity in some points, this is where you should go. But you should be sure about what you want to know. Otherwise it would be the proverbial story of needle and haystack..

[Prashant Vipani · Rating 4 out of 5]

Enlighten and summarised consciousness of Indians described in an easy flow by one of the great minds of the 20th century who often during the book becomes the intermediate between the ancient thought and the modern outlook.

[Жанна Пояркова · Rating 3 out of 5]

Радхакришнан вписывает тексты древнего буддизма в европейский контекст и показывает то, что сразу бросается в глаза при их чтении, - что Кант, Бергсон, Юм, Шопенгауэр - просто дети по сравнению с древними индусами. То, что Кант излагает в девятнадцатом веке, индусы обсудили многократно и многократно на этой почве раскололись еще в третьем веке до н.э. Однако глубинного понимания или хотя бы зацепок на будущее эта вычищенная книга не дает. Впрочем, ранний буддизм там - всего лишь одна из частей.

[D. · Rating 2 out of 5]

Aargh, this was impossible to read. It's written in that early 20th century, dense British scholarly style...I kept trying until finally the library needed it back. Maybe some other time, or another more accessible book on the same topic.

[Arjun Ravichandran · Rating 5 out of 5]

Comprehensive and thorough. Radhakrishnan writes like your favourite uncle ; calm and composed.

[Rajhesh Panchanadhan]

"Tracing the development of Indian philosophy as a single tradition of thought, these two volumes provide a classical exposition of Indian thought. The author showcases ancient philosophical texts and relates them to contemporary issues of philosophy and religion. He presents the essential meaning and significance of individual texts and philosophies and also draws parallels between Indian and western philosophical traditions. The first volume covers the Vedic and Epic periods, including expositions on the hymns of the Rig-Veda, the Upanishads, Jainism, Buddhism, and the theism of the Bhagvadgita. The second investigates the six Brahmanical philosophical systems, the theism of Ramanuja, Saiva ethics, metaphysicas and literature, and the theism of the later Vaishnavas." "This second edition, with a new Introduction by eminent philosopher, J.N. Mohanty, underlines the continuing relevance of the two volumes and the philosophic tradition they represent. Lucidly written, these books will form essential reading for students, teachers, scholars of Indian philosophy as well as general reader interested in the development and growth of Indian thought."--Jacket.

[Yogendra Sharma · Rating 5 out of 5]

The book gives a rational description of the foundations and the beginnings of the Indian Religions along with a comprehensive details about their Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ontology, Ethics, etc.
There are instances where the book has made some successful attempts to find parallel between Western Philosophies of the Pre Socratic, Post Socratic, Age of Enlightenment, etc., to the Indian Philosophical Schools.
I was more of a skeptic but the book has shattered all my notions and I have started believing in the concept of Atman <=> Brahman.

[Anurag Tripathi · Rating 5 out of 5]

The master book is classic on philosophy dealing with Vedic religion, Buddhism and Jainism in Volume 1 of the book.Indian Philosophy: Volume I

[Akash Goel · Rating 2 out of 5]

An extremely dense and verbose work.

[Tony · Rating 5 out of 5]

对于追求spiritual growth的人，我强烈推荐这本书。

“奥义书的哲学”一章是本书的精华，作者非常清晰地解释了这个世界与Brahma/Atman (神，是absolute，infinite) 的关系。作者解释了Sankara（中文名商羯罗，他的观点类似黑格尔的absolute idealism）和 Ramanuja（单神论）的观点，并且把二者统一了起来：Sankara是从intelligence出发能够达到的最终解释，而Ramanuja的解释满足了人们对宗教和devotion的需要。从intelligence的角度说，单神论无法令人满意的，需要再进一步，推出absolute、infinite的存在。但是另一方面，absolute是冷冰冰的抽象，而人民大众需要一个活生生的神来崇拜的。

我同意在现象世界里，subject, object, concept/idea都是相对的，这个相对的世界的背后应该有一个超越，即Absolute，这个世界是这个absolute的实现和展现。 但是，我不同意书中的以下观点：
1. 认为神是完美的，pure, changeless。 他认为尽管这个world也在演化，它最终演化成最初的神的完美 － 所以这个演化过程是摆脱ignorance、回归原始的完美。我不同意，我认为神是演化的潜力，无所谓完美、pure。我理解的神更接近于书中的maya (从神演化出这个世界的神秘潜能)。
2. 认为个体的spiritual growth的终极目标是消除个性（individuality），回归神，与神融合。我不同意，我支持荣格的观点，与神完全融合、消除个性是一种回退（regression）。
3. 认为个体的本质是Brahma(即the Absolute)。我认为龙树用性空解释现象世界的万物更有道理。

作者对释迦牟尼原始教义的解释也还行，没有“Indian Buddhism，by A.K. Warder”好。作者认为释迦牟尼在形而上接受奥义书，只是被问及时保持沉默。释迦牟尼对现象世界和道德的解释的确和奥义书不矛盾，甚至可以互相补充。

对瑜伽行（唯实论）和龙树的中论的解释是本书的第二个精华。根据作者的介绍，佛学的不同流派在形而上有以下的不同观点（不一定按时间顺序）：
1. 认为object（外在物体）和subject（主体，即人）都是实有的，主体通过perception可以客观地了解客体自身的性质。

2. 认为主体所认知的客体其实都是idea, representation，是有赖于主体的认知。客体自身的属性不可知。这和康德（快一千年后了）比较接近，但是康德对时间、空间的理解要深入多了。

3. 瑜伽行对这个不可知的客体不满意，所以认为它们是不存在的，存在的只有意识。这又分两种（作者说瑜伽行的教义把这两种混淆在一起了）：
3.1 主体／个体以及他们的个人意识是实有的。我和作者对此观点都不以为然。
3.2 主体／个体以及他们的个人意识不是实有的，也是相对的，conditioned，而一个超越现象世界之外的absolute universal consciousness是实有的。这其实和Absolute Idealism比较接近了，只是瑜伽行彻底否定客体，而Absolute Idealism认为主体和客体的真实程度是一致的，都是现象世界里的相对的真实。
因为否定了objects，瑜伽行需要解释为什么有因果：一个“因”通过什么手段在一段时间之后产生“果”。瑜伽行引入了第七识（有的教义是第八识），它是用来储存“因”产生的种子，种子在以后产生“果”。这个识和潜意识、尤其是荣格的原型相似。瑜伽行的观点类似Subjective idealism。

4. 龙树的中观，认为现象世界里的一切（subject, object, concept/idea)都是相对的，变化的，没有essence，是conditioned，不是独立的。龙树和释迦牟尼一样，没有谈形而上的问题。

印度的哲学发展到这，Sankara的观点（与黑格尔的Absolute Idealism相似）就水到渠成了。第二卷里有详细介绍，我还没有读。

这本书的第一版是1923年出版，第二版是1929年。第二版在正文的改动应该极少，只是多了一个20页的附录（比如作者解释了为什么他认为释迦牟尼在形而上很可能接受奥义书的观点），以及不重要的尾注。我读的是1996年版（ISBN 0195638190）。2009年的版（ISBN: 019569841X）应该只是多了一个别人写的介绍。

[Divyansh yadav · Rating 3 out of 5]

I have just read the first chapter and completed second, and somehow I can feel that there is some propaganda or idealogy going through the book, then i finally read the reference those all are foreigners and I understood, and i between there are these lines repeated sometimes and I quote,
'No society can hope to continue in a state of progressive civilisation in the midst of uncivilised and half-civilised tribes, it does not meet and overcome the new situation by either completely conquering them or imparting to them elements of their own culture. The alternatives before us are either to destroy the barbarian or absorb them, this raising them to a higher level, or allow ourselves to be overwhelmed and swamped by them.' pg.89
then there some place where older time caste is taken side by the writer that it was right at that time, like his personal view.
so someway i feel the writer is little partial or influenced by western views.
I know the writer is a very respected person, bit this is how I am feeling after reading his book.
Although I like this book but these points are making me icky.

[Yognik1789 · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is a standard version of Indian Philosophical thoughts that I'd safely recommend for all students of philosophy. Volume 1 of Indian Philosophy by Radhakrishnan, an Advaita himself, mostly deals with the early philosophical texts that originated here.
I read the Vedas, Upnishads, the Epic Literature, Bhagvad Gita, The Materialists, Buddhism and Jainism.
A very interesting read with all the necessary references and sources. Radhakrishnan was a grand master in philosophy and he did a huge contribution to the Indian School of thought vis-a-vis the Western 'organized' schools.
This is also a must read for all students of comparative religions.
I am on my religious voyage currently and this book made me sail through early Indian texts seamlessly. (Although it goes without saying, it has explanations which does not mean you do not read the original texts or their simpler translations)

[R · Rating 5 out of 5]

I bought this book to validate one of my friend's claim who during our discussions mentioned that Hinduism as a religion has been strongly influenced by Greek religion and cited it as the reason for similar God's in both histories. I found a reasonable explanation in this book as to why this claim is made and why is it likely not true - so the book served its purpose.
It's a great book to learn about the spiritual development in India. The author discusses the key teachings of Vedas, Upanishads, Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), Jainism and Buddhism along with there chronological development and influence on each other. The book has tone and writing style of a college textbook which makes it a difficult read.

[Mika Oksanen · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a rather comprehensive and useful exposition of the history of Indian Philosophy by an important Indian philosopher of the last century. It has, however, one large defect; it is not an impartial exposition of all systems of Indian philosophy as one might expect. The author is himself an adherent of Advaita Vedanta, a strongly monistic metaphysical theory, and his exposition is biased in favour of it and against tendencies in Indian philosophy incompatible with it, such as realistic and (even weakly) pluralistic theories. Nor does the author always keep his exposition of a theory separate from his criticism of it. Radhakrishnan often confusingly suddenly interrupts an exposition of some theory to criticize that theory. Futhermore, I do not find his arguments always very convincing.

[Akilesh Srikantaiah · Rating 5 out of 5]

For people who want to know how Indians, that tribe to the east of River Indus developed a way of life from pre historic times to the time of Ramanujam, this is a must read. One can't help but wonder how people realized the potential of looking in wards and understanding life. Dr. Radhakrishnan explains in detail about philosophies that have evolved as an off shoot of this thinking of going inwards. At the end of the book, you feel proud that our ancestors were the first in the world to be using their brains to understand the universe around us in simple thoughts. A must read for people interested in philosophy...

[Guy · Rating 5 out of 5]

Great book to introduce the Indian philosophy. A bit biased but perhaps that is understandable when considering the place of that philosophy when the book came out.

The language is academic but not too hard and it covers the vast ideas of the sub-continent. I am looking forward to read 2nd part. Hey!! if anyone has this and want to share...

[Sally · Rating 4 out of 5]

Good coverage of Indian philosophy from Vedic times, through the Upanishads, and up through Buddhism and the Bhagavad-Gita.

[Sandeep · Rating 5 out of 5]

Brilliant and exhaustive.
It is a study without parallel.

[Kogilavani · Rating 3 out of 5]

Read the ethical part, useful and applicable in cyber-ethics study as well.

[Abdul Wadood · Rating 5 out of 5]

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[Suresh Nair · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is a well written book on philosophy. Dr Radhakrishnan has simplified through his language the difficult subject of philosophy. Great work.

[Vijay Peddada · Rating 5 out of 5]

Best book which give complete picture of Indian Philosophy.