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ESP: A Scientific Evaluation
. 1966, ex lib stamps etc, with dustjacket, contents clean, good reading copy, Professional booksellers since 1981
- GenresNonfictionPsychology
1000 pages, Hardcover
First published January 1, 1966
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April 2, 2025
A DETAILED CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF ESP EXPERIMENTS (AS OF 1966)
British psychologist Charles Edward Mark Hansel (1917-2011) wrote in first chapter of this 1966 book, “During the past 30 years… the public has become aware of reports that abilities such as clairvoyance and telepathy have been demonstrated in the laboratory by means of rigorously controlled experiments… Experimental evidence has been produced for four such processes to date: 1. TELEPATHY, a person’s awareness of another’s thoughts, without… communication through sensory channels. 2. CLAIRVOYANCE, knowledge acquired of an object or an event without the use of the senses. 3. PRECOGNITION, knowledge a person may have of another person’s future thoughts… or future events. 4. PSYCHOKINESIS, a person’s ability to influence a physical object or an event, such as the fall of a die, by thinking about it.” (Pg. 1-2)
He argues, “It is necessary to discuss openly possible trickery or cheating by participants to produce a spurious conclusion. If the result could have arisen through a trick, the experiment must be considered unsatisfactory proof of ESP, whether or not it is finally decided that such a trick was in fact used… It may be objected that any experiment can be condemned on the grounds that all of those taking part in it, including the researchers, may be indulging in a trick… This is so. But normally in science anyone who suspects an experimental result can repeat the experiments himself and check its conclusions. Repetition after repetition of an ESP experiment by independent investigators renders the possibility of deception or error extremely unlikely and thus, if the original result is confirmed, the probability of ESP becomes increasingly likely.” (Pg. 18)
He asserts, “in analyzing an experiment that purports to prove ESP, it is wise to adopt initially the assumption that ESP is impossible… To assume [this]… is not unreasonable, since there is a great weight of knowledge supporting this point of view, and the main evidence contradicting it is that of the experiment being analyzed. If analysis shows that this assumption of untenable, then the possibility of ESP has to be accepted.” (Pg. 19)
He explains, “To provide statistically overwhelming evidence for the occurrence of ESP in experiments of this nature requires satisfaction of two conditions: (i) the scores achieved by the subject must be such as are very unlikely to arise by chance, and (ii) the experimental conditions must be such that only ESP could account for them. The first condition is quite simple to assess… The second condition is the more difficul to assess. The experimental conditions may be examined most meticulously and no flaw found, but there is no certainty that nothing has been missed… The incidence of trickery, deception, and effort in psychical research is such that the probability of their occurrence is certainly far from insignificant.” (Pg. 20-21)
He says of earlier ESP investigations, “Some of them illustrate the fact that … involuntary cues could influence a result and that such cues might be utilized by the percipient without his being aware of their presence… Another source of error … was due to the subjects’ preference for guessing particular symbols and their mental habits in making successive guesses…. Errors in recording guesses or results may occur in cases where the recorder holds a particular belief or where the data may support his own hypothesis.” (Pg. 33-35)
He notes, “the subject may recognize the cards by marks on their backs or sides; in addition, if he handles them, he may recognize a particular card by its feel. In 1937, when ESP cards were first supplied to the public, it was shown that they could be read quite easily from their backs and side… A second difficulty … is that the cards may tend to be cut at a particular symbol… some of the early cards were found to be unsatisfactory because one of the symbols was printed on a slightly larger card than the others… so that it would be possible to obtain extra hits in other positions than at the top and bottom of the pack.” (Pg. 51)
He reports, “The scores obtained by each of the high-scoring subjects were such that no one could deny that some factor other than chance was involved. [J.B.] Rhine discussed 5 alternative hypotheses to ESP: chance, fraud, incompetence, unconscious sensory perceptions, and rational inference, and came to the conclusion that he had eliminated the possibility of each of them and that ESP stood without a serious opposing hypothesis. Even a superficial examination makes it difficult, however, to understand why the alternative hypotheses should have been so summarily dismissed… In the cases of subjects who tested themselves, there was no check other than a comparison of scores obtained when they were alone and those made when witnesses were present… A person with half-closed eyes can be facing away from the cards with his eyes turned to them, and an observer would not necessarily be aware of the fact…. The last hypothesis [is] that of rational inference. Since the subject sees the targets after each 5 trials, he is in a position after the first 20 calls to know exactly which symbols are left in the pack.” (Pg. 55-57)
He suggests, “A single demonstration in which the effects of the psychokinetic force could be observed directly would be far more convincing than any number of experiments where the result can only be expressed after a statistical analysis or where psychokinesis is claimed to exist owing to the presence of a post hoc secondary effect in the data.” (Pg. 163)
He acknowledges, “The apparatus used in these tests [carried out at the Unites States Air Force Research Laboratories] was admirably designed and could well be standardized for testing subjects for extrasensory perception, although some extra precautions might be necessary…” (Pg. 172)
He summarizes, “The experiments reported from both sides of the Atlantic do… contain many points in common. They can be summarized as follows: 1. Inadequacy of experimental design… 2. Lack of criticism during the experiment… 3. Inadequacy of the experimental report… 4. Excessive claims made by experimenters… 5. Failure to report essential features of the experimental conditions… 6. Inability to survey the evidence impartially… 7. Inability to confirm a result… 8. Inability to predict…” (Pg. 181-183)
He says in a chapter on Spiritualism, “Man will pay for what he needs. He pays heavily for quack medical remedies, since health is an invaluable commodity. He will also pay heavily a spiritualist who claims to be able to contact a departed relative, for this is a service that no one else claims to provide.” (Pg. 221)
He concludes, “The basic problem of parapsychology is relatively simple when compared with problems in politics or aesthetics. Either it is possible for at least some people to communicate by extrasensory perception, or else ESP does not and cannot exist because the underlying processes necessary for its occurrence do not exist. A great deal of experimental work has failed to provide a clear case for the existence of ESP, but at least two facts have been established: first, subjects when trying to guess card symbols have obtained scores that cannot be attributed to chance: second, some of those taking part in ESP experiments have cheated to produce high scores.” (Pg. 233)
Later, he adds, “It cannot be stated categorically that trickery was responsible for the results of these experiments, but so long as the possibility is present, the experiments cannot be regarded as satisfying the aims of their originators or as supplying conclusive evidence for ESP… An acceptable model for future research … is by the investigators at the United States Air Force Research laboratories. If 12 months research on VERITAC can establish the existence of ESP, the past research will not have been in vain. If ESP is not established, much further effort could be spared and the energies of many young scientists could be directed to more worthwhile research.” (Pg. 241)
This book (as well as Hansel’s later books) will be of great interest to anyone seriously studying ESP.
British psychologist Charles Edward Mark Hansel (1917-2011) wrote in first chapter of this 1966 book, “During the past 30 years… the public has become aware of reports that abilities such as clairvoyance and telepathy have been demonstrated in the laboratory by means of rigorously controlled experiments… Experimental evidence has been produced for four such processes to date: 1. TELEPATHY, a person’s awareness of another’s thoughts, without… communication through sensory channels. 2. CLAIRVOYANCE, knowledge acquired of an object or an event without the use of the senses. 3. PRECOGNITION, knowledge a person may have of another person’s future thoughts… or future events. 4. PSYCHOKINESIS, a person’s ability to influence a physical object or an event, such as the fall of a die, by thinking about it.” (Pg. 1-2)
He argues, “It is necessary to discuss openly possible trickery or cheating by participants to produce a spurious conclusion. If the result could have arisen through a trick, the experiment must be considered unsatisfactory proof of ESP, whether or not it is finally decided that such a trick was in fact used… It may be objected that any experiment can be condemned on the grounds that all of those taking part in it, including the researchers, may be indulging in a trick… This is so. But normally in science anyone who suspects an experimental result can repeat the experiments himself and check its conclusions. Repetition after repetition of an ESP experiment by independent investigators renders the possibility of deception or error extremely unlikely and thus, if the original result is confirmed, the probability of ESP becomes increasingly likely.” (Pg. 18)
He asserts, “in analyzing an experiment that purports to prove ESP, it is wise to adopt initially the assumption that ESP is impossible… To assume [this]… is not unreasonable, since there is a great weight of knowledge supporting this point of view, and the main evidence contradicting it is that of the experiment being analyzed. If analysis shows that this assumption of untenable, then the possibility of ESP has to be accepted.” (Pg. 19)
He explains, “To provide statistically overwhelming evidence for the occurrence of ESP in experiments of this nature requires satisfaction of two conditions: (i) the scores achieved by the subject must be such as are very unlikely to arise by chance, and (ii) the experimental conditions must be such that only ESP could account for them. The first condition is quite simple to assess… The second condition is the more difficul to assess. The experimental conditions may be examined most meticulously and no flaw found, but there is no certainty that nothing has been missed… The incidence of trickery, deception, and effort in psychical research is such that the probability of their occurrence is certainly far from insignificant.” (Pg. 20-21)
He says of earlier ESP investigations, “Some of them illustrate the fact that … involuntary cues could influence a result and that such cues might be utilized by the percipient without his being aware of their presence… Another source of error … was due to the subjects’ preference for guessing particular symbols and their mental habits in making successive guesses…. Errors in recording guesses or results may occur in cases where the recorder holds a particular belief or where the data may support his own hypothesis.” (Pg. 33-35)
He notes, “the subject may recognize the cards by marks on their backs or sides; in addition, if he handles them, he may recognize a particular card by its feel. In 1937, when ESP cards were first supplied to the public, it was shown that they could be read quite easily from their backs and side… A second difficulty … is that the cards may tend to be cut at a particular symbol… some of the early cards were found to be unsatisfactory because one of the symbols was printed on a slightly larger card than the others… so that it would be possible to obtain extra hits in other positions than at the top and bottom of the pack.” (Pg. 51)
He reports, “The scores obtained by each of the high-scoring subjects were such that no one could deny that some factor other than chance was involved. [J.B.] Rhine discussed 5 alternative hypotheses to ESP: chance, fraud, incompetence, unconscious sensory perceptions, and rational inference, and came to the conclusion that he had eliminated the possibility of each of them and that ESP stood without a serious opposing hypothesis. Even a superficial examination makes it difficult, however, to understand why the alternative hypotheses should have been so summarily dismissed… In the cases of subjects who tested themselves, there was no check other than a comparison of scores obtained when they were alone and those made when witnesses were present… A person with half-closed eyes can be facing away from the cards with his eyes turned to them, and an observer would not necessarily be aware of the fact…. The last hypothesis [is] that of rational inference. Since the subject sees the targets after each 5 trials, he is in a position after the first 20 calls to know exactly which symbols are left in the pack.” (Pg. 55-57)
He suggests, “A single demonstration in which the effects of the psychokinetic force could be observed directly would be far more convincing than any number of experiments where the result can only be expressed after a statistical analysis or where psychokinesis is claimed to exist owing to the presence of a post hoc secondary effect in the data.” (Pg. 163)
He acknowledges, “The apparatus used in these tests [carried out at the Unites States Air Force Research Laboratories] was admirably designed and could well be standardized for testing subjects for extrasensory perception, although some extra precautions might be necessary…” (Pg. 172)
He summarizes, “The experiments reported from both sides of the Atlantic do… contain many points in common. They can be summarized as follows: 1. Inadequacy of experimental design… 2. Lack of criticism during the experiment… 3. Inadequacy of the experimental report… 4. Excessive claims made by experimenters… 5. Failure to report essential features of the experimental conditions… 6. Inability to survey the evidence impartially… 7. Inability to confirm a result… 8. Inability to predict…” (Pg. 181-183)
He says in a chapter on Spiritualism, “Man will pay for what he needs. He pays heavily for quack medical remedies, since health is an invaluable commodity. He will also pay heavily a spiritualist who claims to be able to contact a departed relative, for this is a service that no one else claims to provide.” (Pg. 221)
He concludes, “The basic problem of parapsychology is relatively simple when compared with problems in politics or aesthetics. Either it is possible for at least some people to communicate by extrasensory perception, or else ESP does not and cannot exist because the underlying processes necessary for its occurrence do not exist. A great deal of experimental work has failed to provide a clear case for the existence of ESP, but at least two facts have been established: first, subjects when trying to guess card symbols have obtained scores that cannot be attributed to chance: second, some of those taking part in ESP experiments have cheated to produce high scores.” (Pg. 233)
Later, he adds, “It cannot be stated categorically that trickery was responsible for the results of these experiments, but so long as the possibility is present, the experiments cannot be regarded as satisfying the aims of their originators or as supplying conclusive evidence for ESP… An acceptable model for future research … is by the investigators at the United States Air Force Research laboratories. If 12 months research on VERITAC can establish the existence of ESP, the past research will not have been in vain. If ESP is not established, much further effort could be spared and the energies of many young scientists could be directed to more worthwhile research.” (Pg. 241)
This book (as well as Hansel’s later books) will be of great interest to anyone seriously studying ESP.
December 29, 2013
This was one of the used book I got from Myopic Books. This book was first published in 1966 and its author, C.E.M. Hansel, was a professor of psychology.
The author shows that claims in parapsychology do not stand up to critical scrutiny. Experiments purporting to show ESP have severe problems. The sources of experimental error are minimal and sublimal sensory cues such as kinesthetic and tactual cues, visual cues, and auditory cues; mental habits and preferences, and recording errors.
For example, the book examines the tests by J.B. Rhine with Zenner cards. You might be aware of this kind of ESP test: from a pack of cards , each one with a symbol such as a circle, a square, wavy lines, etc, one is picked by the tester; the subject only sees the back of the card, and is to discern what the symbol is on the other side of the card. J.B. Rhine got some remarkable results in these experiments.
C.E.M. Hansel points out, though, that in 1937, when ESP cards were first supplied to the public, it was shown that they could be read quite easily from their backs and sides. An experiment with more rigorous protocols was devised, in which a machine, not a human, picked symbols at random; test subjects in this experiment did not achieve a result greater than chance.
Another important researcher in parapsychology was S.G. Soal in Great Britain, and his experiments do not stand up to critical scrutiny either. One example is with supposedly telepathic Welsh schoolboys. These boys were brothers, and they were tested for telepathic ability. One of the early tests occurred in their home and they were in visual contact with each other.
The boys were tested in their home, and they were in visual contact with each other--doesn't sound like rigorous experimental conditions to me.
This review only gave two examples. The author critically examines many more experiments, and other claims in ESP.
I was planning to write a review of this book when I noticed that a goodreads friend, Eric Graf, recently gave three stars to various books by J.B. Rhine. Evidence of parapsychology, perhaps? No. A section of the book deals with anecdotes of strange experiences. In this case, it should not be surprising that two goodreads friends with similar reading interests would write about the same subject around the same time. I recommend this book to Eric Graf, and perhaps he might then lower his ratings for the books by J.B. Rhine.
The author shows that claims in parapsychology do not stand up to critical scrutiny. Experiments purporting to show ESP have severe problems. The sources of experimental error are minimal and sublimal sensory cues such as kinesthetic and tactual cues, visual cues, and auditory cues; mental habits and preferences, and recording errors.
For example, the book examines the tests by J.B. Rhine with Zenner cards. You might be aware of this kind of ESP test: from a pack of cards , each one with a symbol such as a circle, a square, wavy lines, etc, one is picked by the tester; the subject only sees the back of the card, and is to discern what the symbol is on the other side of the card. J.B. Rhine got some remarkable results in these experiments.
C.E.M. Hansel points out, though, that in 1937, when ESP cards were first supplied to the public, it was shown that they could be read quite easily from their backs and sides. An experiment with more rigorous protocols was devised, in which a machine, not a human, picked symbols at random; test subjects in this experiment did not achieve a result greater than chance.
Another important researcher in parapsychology was S.G. Soal in Great Britain, and his experiments do not stand up to critical scrutiny either. One example is with supposedly telepathic Welsh schoolboys. These boys were brothers, and they were tested for telepathic ability. One of the early tests occurred in their home and they were in visual contact with each other.
The boys were tested in their home, and they were in visual contact with each other--doesn't sound like rigorous experimental conditions to me.
This review only gave two examples. The author critically examines many more experiments, and other claims in ESP.
I was planning to write a review of this book when I noticed that a goodreads friend, Eric Graf, recently gave three stars to various books by J.B. Rhine. Evidence of parapsychology, perhaps? No. A section of the book deals with anecdotes of strange experiences. In this case, it should not be surprising that two goodreads friends with similar reading interests would write about the same subject around the same time. I recommend this book to Eric Graf, and perhaps he might then lower his ratings for the books by J.B. Rhine.
Displaying 1 - 2 of 2 reviews