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History of Botanical Science: An Account of the Development of Botany from Ancient Times to the Present Day
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October 1, 2024
A comprehensive history of plant study that goes all the way to 20th century. Botany's steps towards becoming a science are presented w/in the higher picture of socio-political, economical, and technological developments. Philosophical impact, as well as impact of other sciences (animal biology, physics, chemistry, geology) give a comprehensive image of plant study developments.
An important reading for professional botanists... but could prove a challenging reading for an amateur naturalist, especially a beginner. Either way, not recommended to be read prior to completing intro into botany studies.
Below is a timid summary of the contents...
-------------------
A written history of plant study begins w/ Theophrastus, considered the father of botany (contributions ~ 200BC). He observed the process of germination and recognized the significance of climate to plants. Overall, Theophrastus laid the foundations for plant study.
After Theophrastus there is a decline in plant study w/ few exceptions including Galen who had primarily a pharmaceutical interest in plants.
In West, dark ages for botany follow till ~ 1500s w/ no progress in knowledge or teaching, plant study being reduced to drug lists. However, in East, Chinese works were preserved describing plants in detailed monograms, mostly for medical use. There were also Arabian works going beyond pharmacology but were unfortunately not translated for centuries in Europe.
Renaissance (1483 to 1623) brings a revival of interest in botany, w/ a desire to observe plants in real world rather than copying over-and-over again what had been written by classics. Interest began to expand to a wider variety of plants, also now known due to voyages of exploration - Italian schools were a front-runner in this regard. Large gardens began to be set as part of universities. Methods of preserving plants (by pressing in herbariums) and creating illustrations from living specimens aid in cementing the road towards scientific study of plants. Among notable names from that era was Cesalpino who expanded on plant classification, physiology and morphology.
17th c brought interest in experimental science, w/ the need of testing theories and hypotheses. Notable names from that era:
* Camerarius, w/ focus on plant sexuality and reproduction;
* Jung, who developed a formal, systematic (almost mathematical) approach on plant morphology;
* Grew and Malpighi, who, due to microscope improvements, were able to observe plant development from seed to seed;
* Ray, who deepened plant description and taxonomy by adding information on habit, morphological characteristics, time of flowering, whether annual or perennial, and medical properties, if any;
At the beginning of 18th c, Locke was giving his philosophical perspective on plants by considering them coherent bodies, having internal self-motion and consisting of parts united in specific organization. Notable names in botany from this era were:
* Boerhaave, primarily w/ a practical contribution, w/ one of his focuses being pollen function in fertilization and plant breeding;
* Hales, w/ a focus on quantitative experimentation, developing new ingenious procedures that have been used in the study of plant physiology;
* Kulbel, w/ contributions on soil science and plant nutrition;
* Linnaeus, convinced that fructification plays crucial role in classification, relevant in the delimitation of genera;
* Reaumer, w/ study on algae
* Vaillant helped sedimenting terms related to plant sexual function, like stamen, filament, ovary, ovule, placentation.
Second half of 18th c (Enlightenment) brought focus on biological evolution - simpler organisms giving rise to more complex ones, through a process of natural transformation. Geologic developments in fossil study were instrumental in crystalizing the first theories in plant evolution, w/ primary impact on comparative morphology. Chemistry developments helped in understanding more photosynthesis (Priestly's experiments on the nature of gases). A few names from the era:
* Adanson, who emphasized the need to consider all plant characteristics, as a first step, in plant classification - and formulated principles and methods that have been key to taxonomic progress;
* Buffon, w/ a first evolutionary hypothesis to explain the variety of past and present living organisms;
* Gaertner, who made in-depth studies of seeds, w/ differences between those of cryptogamic and flowering plants;
* Hedwig, who made important advances in cryptogams' study;
* Jan Ingen-Housz, who advanced plant physiology w/ his experiments on plants' generation of oxygen - Senebier used this knowledge in his own experiments on light impact on plant growth;
* Antoine de Jussieu, w/ studies on fungi and lichens, establishing that they are different from plants;
* Koelreuter, whose experiments established formation of plant hybrids, showing those as distinctive from their progenitors;
* De Saussure, who demonstrated first photosynthetic assimilation of carbon by green plants;
* Sprengel, who first accurately described floral mechanisms for successful pollination.
19th c began w/ revival of interest in plant structure, emphasized by further developments in microscopy (achromatic lenses, thin glass cover-slips). A few names:
* Brown, who interpreted floral organs developmentally, as modified leaves. He was the first to use vascularity in studying homology of floral organs. He revealed nucleus as a constant cell organ, providing first firm knowledge, at cellular level, of reproductive organs and fertilization;
* Candolle, who made significant advances in plant classification, outlining that morphological criteria are the essential characters;
* Dutrochet, who discovered osmosis, and studied it systematically (thus expelling "vital force" from plant physiology research);
* Knight, who studied growing plants' reaction towards gravity using first version of what was to become a clinostat;
* Hofmeister, who devoted himself to cryptograms' reproduction, and the discovery of alternation of generations (using Summinski's fern studies);
* Liebig, who made advances in plant nutrition, primarily in the nitrogen intake;
* Moldenhawer, who provided concrete evidence that mature plant body is built entirely of cells;
* Schleiden, w/ studies in cell-theory, opening interest in the form and mode of cell production, anatomy and arrangement of tissues, and cellular details of reproduction in different classes of plants;
* Von Mohl, brought out that the constitution and internal tissues of vascular bundle are essentially the same in monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
Bridge between 2nd half of 19th century and beginning of 20th century marked the beginning of modern botany, w/ establishment of research schools within universities. First tissue cultures have been attempted, giving way to studies in plant anatomy that began to look into how certain tissues confer mechanical stability on the plant body. Further advances in natural classification at lower taxonomic levels were aided by further knowledge of algae. True nature of lichens has been established, as symbiotic associations of organisms like algae and fungi.
A few names:
* Darwin - "Origin of Species" (1859): mutability of species (apparition and extinction), transformation via natural selection, w/ direct impact on natural classification and comparative morphology (the unitary of structure and function in plant body and its individual organs and tissues);
* Nageli, who re-opened the topic on water-relations among plant cells, and osmosis coining the term "micella" (micelle) for the distinction between atom and molecule;
* Sachs, who made the connection between osmotic properties of plant cells and differential permeability of protoplasm, w/ clarification on plant growth. He also investigated the mineral (inorganic) nutrition and carbon assimilation of plants;
* Strasburger, furthering research in plant cytology and reaching the conclusion that fertilization involves a union of male and female protoplasts, w/ the nuclear fusion observed only later.
20th century brought as new interests, among others:
* combination of chromatography w/ other new techniques like ultra-centrifugation, use of "isotopic labelling", electron-microscopy led to a new era in the study of plant metabolic and reproductive processes;
* demonstration that maintenance of all living systems involves a common basis of biochemical mechanisms and protoplasmic organization - being one of the main proofs of evolution from common group of progenitors;
* development of gene-chromosome theory - gene mutations, naturally and artificially induced, were observed in plants;
* questions surrounding origins of living organisms from inorganic matter;
* distinction between prokaryiotic and eukaryotic organisms;
* detailed comparative studies on what Darwin first noticed to be an abrupt appearance of flowering plants in Cretaceous (145 to 66 mil years ago);
* extension of factors used in classification from just morphological to those derived from cytology, anatomy, pollen morphology, embryology, chemical and macro-molecular properties, etc;
* rise of ecology, w/ experimentation to expand on Darwin's natural selection theory;
* study of morphogenesis (metabolism of coordinated growth and cells differentiation), now backed by extended experimentation;
* discovery of photoperiodism (control of flowering by the relative lengthy of nights and day);
* furthering studies of electrical properties of whole plants.
An important reading for professional botanists... but could prove a challenging reading for an amateur naturalist, especially a beginner. Either way, not recommended to be read prior to completing intro into botany studies.
Below is a timid summary of the contents...
-------------------
A written history of plant study begins w/ Theophrastus, considered the father of botany (contributions ~ 200BC). He observed the process of germination and recognized the significance of climate to plants. Overall, Theophrastus laid the foundations for plant study.
After Theophrastus there is a decline in plant study w/ few exceptions including Galen who had primarily a pharmaceutical interest in plants.
In West, dark ages for botany follow till ~ 1500s w/ no progress in knowledge or teaching, plant study being reduced to drug lists. However, in East, Chinese works were preserved describing plants in detailed monograms, mostly for medical use. There were also Arabian works going beyond pharmacology but were unfortunately not translated for centuries in Europe.
Renaissance (1483 to 1623) brings a revival of interest in botany, w/ a desire to observe plants in real world rather than copying over-and-over again what had been written by classics. Interest began to expand to a wider variety of plants, also now known due to voyages of exploration - Italian schools were a front-runner in this regard. Large gardens began to be set as part of universities. Methods of preserving plants (by pressing in herbariums) and creating illustrations from living specimens aid in cementing the road towards scientific study of plants. Among notable names from that era was Cesalpino who expanded on plant classification, physiology and morphology.
17th c brought interest in experimental science, w/ the need of testing theories and hypotheses. Notable names from that era:
* Camerarius, w/ focus on plant sexuality and reproduction;
* Jung, who developed a formal, systematic (almost mathematical) approach on plant morphology;
* Grew and Malpighi, who, due to microscope improvements, were able to observe plant development from seed to seed;
* Ray, who deepened plant description and taxonomy by adding information on habit, morphological characteristics, time of flowering, whether annual or perennial, and medical properties, if any;
At the beginning of 18th c, Locke was giving his philosophical perspective on plants by considering them coherent bodies, having internal self-motion and consisting of parts united in specific organization. Notable names in botany from this era were:
* Boerhaave, primarily w/ a practical contribution, w/ one of his focuses being pollen function in fertilization and plant breeding;
* Hales, w/ a focus on quantitative experimentation, developing new ingenious procedures that have been used in the study of plant physiology;
* Kulbel, w/ contributions on soil science and plant nutrition;
* Linnaeus, convinced that fructification plays crucial role in classification, relevant in the delimitation of genera;
* Reaumer, w/ study on algae
* Vaillant helped sedimenting terms related to plant sexual function, like stamen, filament, ovary, ovule, placentation.
Second half of 18th c (Enlightenment) brought focus on biological evolution - simpler organisms giving rise to more complex ones, through a process of natural transformation. Geologic developments in fossil study were instrumental in crystalizing the first theories in plant evolution, w/ primary impact on comparative morphology. Chemistry developments helped in understanding more photosynthesis (Priestly's experiments on the nature of gases). A few names from the era:
* Adanson, who emphasized the need to consider all plant characteristics, as a first step, in plant classification - and formulated principles and methods that have been key to taxonomic progress;
* Buffon, w/ a first evolutionary hypothesis to explain the variety of past and present living organisms;
* Gaertner, who made in-depth studies of seeds, w/ differences between those of cryptogamic and flowering plants;
* Hedwig, who made important advances in cryptogams' study;
* Jan Ingen-Housz, who advanced plant physiology w/ his experiments on plants' generation of oxygen - Senebier used this knowledge in his own experiments on light impact on plant growth;
* Antoine de Jussieu, w/ studies on fungi and lichens, establishing that they are different from plants;
* Koelreuter, whose experiments established formation of plant hybrids, showing those as distinctive from their progenitors;
* De Saussure, who demonstrated first photosynthetic assimilation of carbon by green plants;
* Sprengel, who first accurately described floral mechanisms for successful pollination.
19th c began w/ revival of interest in plant structure, emphasized by further developments in microscopy (achromatic lenses, thin glass cover-slips). A few names:
* Brown, who interpreted floral organs developmentally, as modified leaves. He was the first to use vascularity in studying homology of floral organs. He revealed nucleus as a constant cell organ, providing first firm knowledge, at cellular level, of reproductive organs and fertilization;
* Candolle, who made significant advances in plant classification, outlining that morphological criteria are the essential characters;
* Dutrochet, who discovered osmosis, and studied it systematically (thus expelling "vital force" from plant physiology research);
* Knight, who studied growing plants' reaction towards gravity using first version of what was to become a clinostat;
* Hofmeister, who devoted himself to cryptograms' reproduction, and the discovery of alternation of generations (using Summinski's fern studies);
* Liebig, who made advances in plant nutrition, primarily in the nitrogen intake;
* Moldenhawer, who provided concrete evidence that mature plant body is built entirely of cells;
* Schleiden, w/ studies in cell-theory, opening interest in the form and mode of cell production, anatomy and arrangement of tissues, and cellular details of reproduction in different classes of plants;
* Von Mohl, brought out that the constitution and internal tissues of vascular bundle are essentially the same in monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
Bridge between 2nd half of 19th century and beginning of 20th century marked the beginning of modern botany, w/ establishment of research schools within universities. First tissue cultures have been attempted, giving way to studies in plant anatomy that began to look into how certain tissues confer mechanical stability on the plant body. Further advances in natural classification at lower taxonomic levels were aided by further knowledge of algae. True nature of lichens has been established, as symbiotic associations of organisms like algae and fungi.
A few names:
* Darwin - "Origin of Species" (1859): mutability of species (apparition and extinction), transformation via natural selection, w/ direct impact on natural classification and comparative morphology (the unitary of structure and function in plant body and its individual organs and tissues);
* Nageli, who re-opened the topic on water-relations among plant cells, and osmosis coining the term "micella" (micelle) for the distinction between atom and molecule;
* Sachs, who made the connection between osmotic properties of plant cells and differential permeability of protoplasm, w/ clarification on plant growth. He also investigated the mineral (inorganic) nutrition and carbon assimilation of plants;
* Strasburger, furthering research in plant cytology and reaching the conclusion that fertilization involves a union of male and female protoplasts, w/ the nuclear fusion observed only later.
20th century brought as new interests, among others:
* combination of chromatography w/ other new techniques like ultra-centrifugation, use of "isotopic labelling", electron-microscopy led to a new era in the study of plant metabolic and reproductive processes;
* demonstration that maintenance of all living systems involves a common basis of biochemical mechanisms and protoplasmic organization - being one of the main proofs of evolution from common group of progenitors;
* development of gene-chromosome theory - gene mutations, naturally and artificially induced, were observed in plants;
* questions surrounding origins of living organisms from inorganic matter;
* distinction between prokaryiotic and eukaryotic organisms;
* detailed comparative studies on what Darwin first noticed to be an abrupt appearance of flowering plants in Cretaceous (145 to 66 mil years ago);
* extension of factors used in classification from just morphological to those derived from cytology, anatomy, pollen morphology, embryology, chemical and macro-molecular properties, etc;
* rise of ecology, w/ experimentation to expand on Darwin's natural selection theory;
* study of morphogenesis (metabolism of coordinated growth and cells differentiation), now backed by extended experimentation;
* discovery of photoperiodism (control of flowering by the relative lengthy of nights and day);
* furthering studies of electrical properties of whole plants.
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