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Digenis Akritis: The Grottaferrata and Escorial Versions
Digenis Akritis is Byzantium's only epic poem, telling of the exploits of a heroic warrior of double descent on the frontiers between Byzantine and Arab territory in Asia Minor in the ninth and tenth centuries. It survives partially in six versions, of which the two oldest are edited here. This edition and translation aims to highlight the nature of the lost poem, and to provide a guide through the maze of recent discussions about the epic and its background.
464 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 1150
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Displaying 1 - 12 of 12 reviews
January 21, 2013
11th century Byzantine epic or romance, set on the eastern frontiers. Arabs aren't the enemy so much as ex-enemy; indeed the introduction claims the romance is a peace statement. There's a lull, where he slots in the poem: the Arabian Wars at an end, the Seljuk Turks unbeknownst on the horizon. Our hero has an Emir for a father, who fell in love with his captive Byzantine girl and converted. In spite of conversion, the introduction presents the epic as free from 'fanaticism or political urgency' -- without an agenda, unless it be one of tolerance.
That sounds lovely. Unfortunately I felt the introduction was the best-written part between these covers. Besides, I'd rather have had a bit of a political glimpse at the eastern frontier; instead, as the translator says, this is folktale and its history wafty -- a matter of names of famous Arab foes and border robbers. As story merely, I can't say much for this one. He woos a girl, he fights robbers. He tears lions shank from shank, and that's fun.
It’s full of sexual violence, for a culture study. When Basil isn’t defending his new-won wife from sexual attack, he’s... off making his own. Yes. Twice he commits what he calls adultery. The sin and deception of his wife cause him angst. The 1st time, it’s a betrayed girl whom he rescues, and rapes, after which he tracks down her seducer and forces him to do the right thing. And if you thought that was questionable, wait for the 2nd event. Enter the Amazon, Maximo. There’s always an Amazon in epic. Let me tell you, I have never in my travels met a wetter excuse for a she-fighter. Although I like what she does with her horse:
Riding upon a charger white as milk,
Having his mane and tail, forelock and ears
Dyed red, his four hooves also dyed with red...
Nice. But on with the story. After she loses to Basil, and kisses his feet and submits, old Basil is tempted again. "Again I slipped into adultery’s pit." This time, unlike the last time, the woman is a party, and indeed 'tried sorely' to keep him. He ignores her and rides back to his wife. His wife -- who knew about the 1st event -- suspects him with Maximo, and to salve his guilty conscience, guess what he does? In one version only. I’ll stress that: one version we have of the poem inserts this further incident. Because his wife’s jealousy makes him feel bad, he goes back and he kills Maximo.
After these adventures, husband and wife build a palace on the Euphrates, he catches his death in the bath and she can’t live a second without him. End of story.
There you have it. As old romances and epics go, it runs off with the prize for outrageous.
A word on the style. The translator explains: where the Greek is awkward or dull, he resists the temptation to amend in the English. For a clumsy line he’ll give you a clumsy line. I believe this is correct of him. It reads quite clumsily quite often – that’s the authentic experience.
Original Greek/English translation on facing pages.
That sounds lovely. Unfortunately I felt the introduction was the best-written part between these covers. Besides, I'd rather have had a bit of a political glimpse at the eastern frontier; instead, as the translator says, this is folktale and its history wafty -- a matter of names of famous Arab foes and border robbers. As story merely, I can't say much for this one. He woos a girl, he fights robbers. He tears lions shank from shank, and that's fun.
It’s full of sexual violence, for a culture study. When Basil isn’t defending his new-won wife from sexual attack, he’s... off making his own. Yes. Twice he commits what he calls adultery. The sin and deception of his wife cause him angst. The 1st time, it’s a betrayed girl whom he rescues, and rapes, after which he tracks down her seducer and forces him to do the right thing. And if you thought that was questionable, wait for the 2nd event. Enter the Amazon, Maximo. There’s always an Amazon in epic. Let me tell you, I have never in my travels met a wetter excuse for a she-fighter. Although I like what she does with her horse:
Riding upon a charger white as milk,
Having his mane and tail, forelock and ears
Dyed red, his four hooves also dyed with red...
Nice. But on with the story. After she loses to Basil, and kisses his feet and submits, old Basil is tempted again. "Again I slipped into adultery’s pit." This time, unlike the last time, the woman is a party, and indeed 'tried sorely' to keep him. He ignores her and rides back to his wife. His wife -- who knew about the 1st event -- suspects him with Maximo, and to salve his guilty conscience, guess what he does? In one version only. I’ll stress that: one version we have of the poem inserts this further incident. Because his wife’s jealousy makes him feel bad, he goes back and he kills Maximo.
After these adventures, husband and wife build a palace on the Euphrates, he catches his death in the bath and she can’t live a second without him. End of story.
There you have it. As old romances and epics go, it runs off with the prize for outrageous.
A word on the style. The translator explains: where the Greek is awkward or dull, he resists the temptation to amend in the English. For a clumsy line he’ll give you a clumsy line. I believe this is correct of him. It reads quite clumsily quite often – that’s the authentic experience.
Original Greek/English translation on facing pages.
January 15, 2023
I found this book in a used bookshop in Pittsburgh in 2016. It's been sitting on my shelf patiently waiting for me to get around to it.
A man born of born two nations lives, loves and fights on the border between the Holy Roman and Ottoman Empires. Like the Byzantine Empire, there is no East or West in this text, there is no pro or anti-religion stances, nor is there any politicalization in Digenes Akrites. It is simply a romantic epic of its time period.
I think that if I read this romantic Byzantine epic without the introduction, I would have been vastly underwhelmed. It is inconsistent in tone and is incomplete in many instances. It contradicts itself occasionally and can be difficult to follow.
But the text as presented is the culmination of decades of historical and linguistic research that, as documented by the introduction, is simply remarkable. The dates given for the probable composition of the epic is mid to late 11th century, though the earliest manuscript is from the 13th century. A total of seven manuscripts have been located and preserved: five in poetic form (two with ten parts, three with 8) and two prose versions discovered in Russia. The text presented is a translation of the earliest verse text with gaps filled in from the other verse texts.
The whole reads like a doctoral thesis or a published work for Byzantine literature scholars. It provides scholarly commentary on decisions made in translation and the combining of texts to deliver a readable whole. It was a rewarding experience in an intellectual sense, if not the reading sense.
One point of discussion that will always remain with me is that a prose translation is made for the elite, a verse translation with the masses in mind--based on the time period. You can read? Here's a fine work of prosody. You can't read? Here's a song that has been passed down that you can memorize.
Maybe that's why I've always preferred verse translations of works to prose translations.
A man born of born two nations lives, loves and fights on the border between the Holy Roman and Ottoman Empires. Like the Byzantine Empire, there is no East or West in this text, there is no pro or anti-religion stances, nor is there any politicalization in Digenes Akrites. It is simply a romantic epic of its time period.
I think that if I read this romantic Byzantine epic without the introduction, I would have been vastly underwhelmed. It is inconsistent in tone and is incomplete in many instances. It contradicts itself occasionally and can be difficult to follow.
But the text as presented is the culmination of decades of historical and linguistic research that, as documented by the introduction, is simply remarkable. The dates given for the probable composition of the epic is mid to late 11th century, though the earliest manuscript is from the 13th century. A total of seven manuscripts have been located and preserved: five in poetic form (two with ten parts, three with 8) and two prose versions discovered in Russia. The text presented is a translation of the earliest verse text with gaps filled in from the other verse texts.
The whole reads like a doctoral thesis or a published work for Byzantine literature scholars. It provides scholarly commentary on decisions made in translation and the combining of texts to deliver a readable whole. It was a rewarding experience in an intellectual sense, if not the reading sense.
One point of discussion that will always remain with me is that a prose translation is made for the elite, a verse translation with the masses in mind--based on the time period. You can read? Here's a fine work of prosody. You can't read? Here's a song that has been passed down that you can memorize.
Maybe that's why I've always preferred verse translations of works to prose translations.
July 19, 2025
Digenis Akritis is een middeleeuws Byzantijns verhaal over een grenswachter in Cappadocië, waar het Byzantijnse rijk aan de Islamitische wereld grenst. De thematiek richt zich vooral op de ridderlijkheid en de liefde, waarbij de hoofdpersoon in ieder geval de ideale hoffelijke ridder representeert. Wat de liefde betreft is Digenis nogal een schuinsmarcheerder.
Wat ik boeiend vond was dat het verhaal in de vorm sterk verschilt van de Nederlandse middeleeuwse literatuur die ik heb gelezen. Het is niet zo cryptisch in de symboliek, de dialoog is relatief natuurlijker en er is meer ruimte voor de psychologie van de karakters.
Ik heb een zeer ambitueuze vertaling gelezen van Willem J. Aerts, die poogde niet alleen de tekst te vertalen maar ook in hetzelfde metrum te zetten als het origineel. Dit is best wel goed gelukt maar er vielen me wel wat dingen op. Bepaalde archaïsche vervoegingen van woorden en de woorden zelf worden niet consistent gebruikt maar alleen waar het het metrum uit komt. Hierdoor wordt de tekst wat eclectisch wat niet helemaak fijn is voor de prosa.
Toch over het algemeen een leuke leeservaring: 4,2/5
Wat ik boeiend vond was dat het verhaal in de vorm sterk verschilt van de Nederlandse middeleeuwse literatuur die ik heb gelezen. Het is niet zo cryptisch in de symboliek, de dialoog is relatief natuurlijker en er is meer ruimte voor de psychologie van de karakters.
Ik heb een zeer ambitueuze vertaling gelezen van Willem J. Aerts, die poogde niet alleen de tekst te vertalen maar ook in hetzelfde metrum te zetten als het origineel. Dit is best wel goed gelukt maar er vielen me wel wat dingen op. Bepaalde archaïsche vervoegingen van woorden en de woorden zelf worden niet consistent gebruikt maar alleen waar het het metrum uit komt. Hierdoor wordt de tekst wat eclectisch wat niet helemaak fijn is voor de prosa.
Toch over het algemeen een leuke leeservaring: 4,2/5
February 6, 2013
Elizabeth Jeffreys provides a wealth of scholarship plus parallel Greek text for both Grottaferrata and Escorial. The older Hull translation was a nice reference until this one showed up; however, this one is the definitive work of both the larger surviving manuscripts. After a decade of using this, I am still in awe of the scholarship it took to assemble this text.
January 24, 2017
=======
As of 1/24/17 this book is erroneously listed as being the same as the Elizabeth Jeffreys version. There are different versions of Digenes Akrites, and there are different scholarly editions and translations. What follows is an older review I wrote for the Mavrogordato translation.
======
'Digenes Akrites' is the name that Mavrogordato has given to this Medieval Greek take on the Hellenistic romance, and it is also the name of the main character. Although his proper name is Basil, he earns the title 'Digenes Akrites' for his actions. Mavrogordato translates this as "the twyborn borderer", in that he had a Saracen father and a Byzantine mother. The "Akrites" part refers to a class of soldier that grew up on the Eastern frontier around Armenia and Cappadocia following the Arab conquest of Syria and Egypt. They were tough and independent, and Digenes seems to represent this admirably. Although it is technically Byzantine literature, in that it took place in what were (marginally) Byzantine lands, the "Empire of the Romans" gets only the occasional mention. At one point, Digenes meets an Emperor Basil, but whether this is Basil I or Basil II is unclear. Mavrogordato argues for a mid-11th c. composition on the basis of literary, but the context of the story is quite probably two centuries earlier, so it is difficult to say.
It is also difficult to say whether Digenes was based upon a real character. Mavrogordato rejects this idea, but there are some interesting, non-critical details that suggest that it may have some historical basis in reality. For one, Digenes' wife's mother's husband is mentioned as being in exile, but this point is largely irrelevant to the entire story. The other is Digenes' untimely death. For a hero who secured the borders, beat off an Amazon woman, killed creatures single-handedly and fought a bear at age 12, one would expect that he'd have a much better death. The eighth book describes his palace on the Euphrates, and how all is well, with brief interludes, as each of his parents die. However, strangely enough, Digenes feels some pains in his stomach after having a bath and dies shortly thereafter at a young age, along with his wife. Perhaps this is a reflection of the uncertainty of border life coupled with the major theme of the Hellenistic romance. An important part of the Hellenistic romance is the idea of separation between the lovers and all sorts of travel, although eventually they are together. Although they have their fortified palace on the Euphrates, when Digenes gets sick, the Girl (she is always referred to as 'Kore') prays that she will join him in death, and they die together. While it is impossible to prove that this is a rather world-weary take on the Hellenistic romance, it is an interesting idea.
As for this particular edition, it is quite good. Mavrogordato has a 70+ page introduction, discussing manuscript variants, the story and its variants, and the scholars of those who worked on the text before he did. The Greek text is clean and easy to read, and with some vocabulary help, shouldn't pose much difficulty to students with only limited Greek. The translation is quite literal. While I'm normally fond of literal translations, considering that this is verse, Mavrogordato may take it a little too far at certain points. There are times where the English just makes very little sense. However, this is a minor caveat, as most of the text is easy to read and understand. The reason that this edition gets four stars is because Mavrogordato took the title "Digenes Akrites" a little too far. Something along the lines of "Digenes Akrites: The Grottaferrata Text" would be more accurate, because this is, primarily, that text. However, the entire Akritic cycle has a good number of variants (with significant differences), which are still awaiting publication. While Mavrogordato notes these at times in the critical apparatus and in the introduction, this particular text is still based upon that one version.
This is an excellent, readable edition of one of the variants of the Akritic Cycle. While it provides some interesting information on the Byzantine eastern frontier and the development of Greek literature, it is a good enough read to stand on its own, and is thus highly recommended.
As of 1/24/17 this book is erroneously listed as being the same as the Elizabeth Jeffreys version. There are different versions of Digenes Akrites, and there are different scholarly editions and translations. What follows is an older review I wrote for the Mavrogordato translation.
======
'Digenes Akrites' is the name that Mavrogordato has given to this Medieval Greek take on the Hellenistic romance, and it is also the name of the main character. Although his proper name is Basil, he earns the title 'Digenes Akrites' for his actions. Mavrogordato translates this as "the twyborn borderer", in that he had a Saracen father and a Byzantine mother. The "Akrites" part refers to a class of soldier that grew up on the Eastern frontier around Armenia and Cappadocia following the Arab conquest of Syria and Egypt. They were tough and independent, and Digenes seems to represent this admirably. Although it is technically Byzantine literature, in that it took place in what were (marginally) Byzantine lands, the "Empire of the Romans" gets only the occasional mention. At one point, Digenes meets an Emperor Basil, but whether this is Basil I or Basil II is unclear. Mavrogordato argues for a mid-11th c. composition on the basis of literary, but the context of the story is quite probably two centuries earlier, so it is difficult to say.
It is also difficult to say whether Digenes was based upon a real character. Mavrogordato rejects this idea, but there are some interesting, non-critical details that suggest that it may have some historical basis in reality. For one, Digenes' wife's mother's husband is mentioned as being in exile, but this point is largely irrelevant to the entire story. The other is Digenes' untimely death. For a hero who secured the borders, beat off an Amazon woman, killed creatures single-handedly and fought a bear at age 12, one would expect that he'd have a much better death. The eighth book describes his palace on the Euphrates, and how all is well, with brief interludes, as each of his parents die. However, strangely enough, Digenes feels some pains in his stomach after having a bath and dies shortly thereafter at a young age, along with his wife. Perhaps this is a reflection of the uncertainty of border life coupled with the major theme of the Hellenistic romance. An important part of the Hellenistic romance is the idea of separation between the lovers and all sorts of travel, although eventually they are together. Although they have their fortified palace on the Euphrates, when Digenes gets sick, the Girl (she is always referred to as 'Kore') prays that she will join him in death, and they die together. While it is impossible to prove that this is a rather world-weary take on the Hellenistic romance, it is an interesting idea.
As for this particular edition, it is quite good. Mavrogordato has a 70+ page introduction, discussing manuscript variants, the story and its variants, and the scholars of those who worked on the text before he did. The Greek text is clean and easy to read, and with some vocabulary help, shouldn't pose much difficulty to students with only limited Greek. The translation is quite literal. While I'm normally fond of literal translations, considering that this is verse, Mavrogordato may take it a little too far at certain points. There are times where the English just makes very little sense. However, this is a minor caveat, as most of the text is easy to read and understand. The reason that this edition gets four stars is because Mavrogordato took the title "Digenes Akrites" a little too far. Something along the lines of "Digenes Akrites: The Grottaferrata Text" would be more accurate, because this is, primarily, that text. However, the entire Akritic cycle has a good number of variants (with significant differences), which are still awaiting publication. While Mavrogordato notes these at times in the critical apparatus and in the introduction, this particular text is still based upon that one version.
This is an excellent, readable edition of one of the variants of the Akritic Cycle. While it provides some interesting information on the Byzantine eastern frontier and the development of Greek literature, it is a good enough read to stand on its own, and is thus highly recommended.
November 23, 2012
Five stars, because: 1. It's not a bad story, 2. it serves as a marker for the turning the clock back on women to Ancient Greece in the Byzantine Empire after the 12th Century, and the Jeffreys translation is better than the Hull translation. I know many people don't consider this cycle "literature," but they also hate puppies.
June 26, 2020
This is a story that was written around 900 years ago in the Byzantine empire and I was expecting it to be interesting, at the very least as an insight on how these people thought. It actually starts very promising, by having as its hero an Arab, meaning someone who was, traditionally, an enemy of the Byzantines. Unfortunately though, that's the extent of its merits, as he simply falls in love with a christian girl he stole, solely because of her beauty, promising to her brothers that came to take her back that he hasn't exchanged a word with her. Of course he and his family convert to Christianity and the one true God.
And it only gets worse from there. The child of this union, Digenis, is some kind of masculine fantasy that can kill hundreds of people alone and he has no problem raping women. I am not really the kind of person who expects art to be moral, but I expect it to be interesting and this one certainly isn't. Maybe an interesting question from our perspective can be whether these stories were basically escapism, like our video games, meaning something that they would never do, but a hero of a fictional story could do, or whether they were dreaming of doing it to an enemy if the chance arose. History seems to point to the second possibility.
And it only gets worse from there. The child of this union, Digenis, is some kind of masculine fantasy that can kill hundreds of people alone and he has no problem raping women. I am not really the kind of person who expects art to be moral, but I expect it to be interesting and this one certainly isn't. Maybe an interesting question from our perspective can be whether these stories were basically escapism, like our video games, meaning something that they would never do, but a hero of a fictional story could do, or whether they were dreaming of doing it to an enemy if the chance arose. History seems to point to the second possibility.
March 20, 2024
The only English-language edition (that grabs and holds) of the only Christian Roman epic (that survives) is also the first one to be published, translated line by line "as literal as possible," meaning that the English is more gnarled than Andrew Lang's Homeric Hymns, markedly similar to Shakespeare in fact, and that the title of our hero changes from "Digenes Akrites" to "Twyborn Borderer" and back again numerous times. Yet, in this challenging edition alone, I detect the spirit of epic poetry poking through! Not only that, but an authentic-seeming medievalness. Four stars, rounded up both for thoroughness and for definitiveness' sake.
March 20, 2024
I love this legend, but I feel either Jeffries' translation or the Grottaferrata version itself is too lackluster for it to compete with other epics like Beowulf, Voyage of the Argo, and Homer. As it is, the akritis in question is definitely in the mold of Hercules rather than my beloved wily Odysseus. I admit it: the idea of Byzantine pulp fiction appeals to me. I wish it was longer, really.
March 16, 2020
Obviously you have to be a Byzantine history nerd to love this book, and I am that.
May 20, 2009
This compares unfavorably with Gilgamesh. The cultures that produced them were very different of course but Digenis Akritis just doesn't attain the same kind of universality as the other epic. The story is also more episodic. The subtitle to my edition is awesome though "The Two Blood Border Lord".
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April 15, 20221135 - [ contains reference to dhat al himma and https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5...]
The oldest two are Grottaferrata versions (or G, 3749 lines) then el Escorial (or E, 1867 lines). The common core of the two versions goes back to the twelfth century. Tell same story similar words but Vary in length + linguistic register
https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/7...
The oldest two are Grottaferrata versions (or G, 3749 lines) then el Escorial (or E, 1867 lines). The common core of the two versions goes back to the twelfth century. Tell same story similar words but Vary in length + linguistic register
https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/7...
Displaying 1 - 12 of 12 reviews