The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People's History

by Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja

The people of the Congo have suffered from a particularly brutal colonial rule, American interference after independence, decades of robbery at the hands of the dictator Mobutu and periodic warfare which continues even now in the East of the country. But, as this insightful political history makes clear, the Congolese people have not taken these multiple oppressions lying down and have fought over many years to establish democratic institutions at home and free themselves from foreign exploitation; indeed these are two aspects of a single project.

Professor Nzongola-Ntalaja is one of his country's leading intellectuals and his panoramic understanding of the personalities and events, as well as class, ethnic and other factors, make his book a lucid, radical and utterly unromanticized account of his countrymen's struggle. His people's defeat and the state's post-colonial crisis are seen as resulting from a post-independence collapse of the anti-colonial alliance between the masses and the national leadership .

This book is essential reading for understanding what is happening in the Congo and the Great Lakes region under the rule of the late President Kabila, and now his son. It will also stand as a milestone in how to write the modern political history of Africa.

Genres: History, Africa, Nonfiction, Politics, World History, Democratic Republic Of The Congo, Education

320 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 2002

Reviews

[sologdin · Rating 4 out of 5]

If this is the worst book that I read in 2013, it'll be a very good year.

Very much a people's history, but more in the original tradition of Morton's People's History of England, with broad strokes regarding class relations, social forces, conflicting ideologies, imperialist power, and so on (there's even mention on occasion of dialectics and contradiction, so, yaknow, overtly marxist), rather than the more colloquial and personal demarginalization of resistance voices that one might find in Zinn's People's History of the United States. The distinction is that the former presents the establishment version of history from the perspective of critique, along with an authoritative, centralizing narrative of resistance tendencies, whereas the latter is pleased to decentralize the narration, forefronting the counter-narrative in fragmented form through the direct discourse of contemporary interlocutors. Both traditions have their respective values. Those conversant with marxist theory will note oblique references to Althusser, quotations of Gramsci, and citations to Poulantzas; explicit references to Herr Marx appear--but the analysis is dominated, appropriately, by Fanon & Cabral.

Writer is Congolese, in on the ground floor with the decolonization and resistance movements described. Despite the passionate attachment of the author, the writing is sober. The book is familiar with Horschild, and seems generally supportive of that work.

Chronicles the initial seizure of the Congo by the Belgian monarch, who ruled it as a personal possession, rather than under the auspices of the Belgian state. The death toll for the 23-year period of personal rule is ten million human persons, attributable to market mechanisms and the behavior of concessionaire corporations from around the capitalist world. The first state to recognize Leopold's claim, incidentally, was the United States in 1884 (Chester Arthur FTW!), prior to the Berlin Conference of 1885, which resulted informally in the cementing of the claim (16).

Thereafter the volume presents the neocolonial situation, then Mobutu's crazed tenure, and then the post-Mobutu rule of poppa Kabila and the commencement of baby Kabila's reign. The post-Mobutu period is characterized by the Congo wars (perhaps too quickly presented, and somewhat bewildering), which resulted in the deaths of over 5 million persons. The surplus extraction of Congolese labor was sufficient for Belgium to fund its participation in both world wars: during its stay in London in WW2, e.g., the Belgian government in exile did not borrow any moneys and did not deplete its gold reserves, even while funding its military and diplomatic corps (29).

At each of the four stages of Congolese history, Nzongola-Ntalaya is careful to examine the opposition: primary resistance against Leopold, resistance to occupying colonialism proper under both personal rule and as the Belgian "Congo Free State," resistance to neocolonialism, resistance to Mobutu, resistance to the current state of affairs. Each separate resistance group in each period is critiqued for its failures--even Lumumba, generally lionized as a national hero, is revealed to have blundered politically and been complicit in crimes against humanity. Author accordingly appears to be a passionate supporter of Lumumba's programme, but is no brainwashed follower. More significant are the failures of the local proxies of imperialist powers.

Though the volume denies that Mobutu is a fascist, on the basis that the regime was authoritarian rather than totalitarian (165), it nonetheless lays out the case that the regime relied on an "ideology of authenticity" (149), which is one of the relevant precursors detailed in Herf's Reactionary Modernism, and is therefore something that I now mark out.

And there are many crimes against humanity beyond the 15 millions already mentioned. One thing that stands out is the analysis of the Rwandan genocide, which cannot be separated analytically from Congolese history. While Lumumba was attempting and failing to establish the independent state, ethnogenetic genocides were being commited in Rwanda in the late 1950s and early '60s; 1994 therefore did not arise ex nihilo.

The text really shines in the discussions of the constitutional developments in the 1990s, during Mobutu's last seven years (189-208), wherein the drafters failed to confect a permanent settlement, for reasons of their own inabilities and because of the pressures of internal pro-Mobutu forces and external imperialist interference.

Such failure is the overarching theme: in each period, the resistance fought, initially won a substantial victory, but ultimately went down in ruin. A quick bit of reading elsewise on the history of the Congo in the ten years since this volume appeared only confirms the pattern.

Standing behind all of this is the spectre of the US cynicism. Leopold's claim became legitimate because of the US recognition. Lumumba was ultimately deposed and assassinated on US orders. Mobutu was a CIA thug before he launched his first coup d'etat; his second and third coups were US-supported. The post-Mobutu crimes are characterized by thorough US complicity--all generated by geostrategic concerns and avarice for the Congo's mineral wealth, including fissionable materials, which were used in constructing the nuclear bombs dropped on Japan (29).

Highly recommended.

[Gabriella · Rating 2 out of 5]

This was one of my most difficult buddy reads of 2024, which is regrettable as I think it’s super important to learn more about the historical resistance to exploitation in the Congo. My friend and I set out to read The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People's History because unlike many “primer” books we could find, it actually seemed to be written by a Congolese author. The framing of a people’s history also suggested that we might encounter a more human-scaled history than we did when reading The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine by Rashid Khalidi. As I’ve noted, I learned a lot from that book politically, but it was less attuned to people’s everyday experiences of and resistance to the occupation than expected.

I think Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja does a better job at explaining what various political decrees actually meant for the lives of everyday Congolese people, so I must give him credit for that! He's also skilled at laying out the central political themes of the Congo over the last few centuries, which seem to still influence today.

Things I Learned
One of the major themes of this book is how the Congolese people are repeatedly denied the chance to select their own leadership. This "negation of democracy and the popular rule" is of course stood up by the powers that be in America, Belgium, and other colonial nations and world powers who had a vested interest in the significant resources that can be exploited from this region. Like in Hundred Years’ War on Palestine, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila describes the post-WW2 imperial transfer of power where America began stepping in to prop up these neocolonial governments. Nzongola-Ntalaja shows how over the course of many decades, this outsized American influence (and Belgian/French influence before that) has continued to impede the Congolese people’s continued fight for self-determination and democracy (term used lightly here).

Another unavoidable theme of this book is how it truly all goes back to the resources!!! I read How Europe Underdeveloped Africa by Walter Rodney in February, and I think he is of a similar mind to Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja. Both books describe the mineral and ecological wealth of the Congo, though this one of course provides much more detail. I was just shocked by the abundance of resources in the Congo—like other countries have literally financed their invasions into the Congo by extracting resources from the country. (My fellow urban planners will immediately be reminded of value capture schemes in this section!!) This pattern of exploitation has made all but the average Congolese people very rich, and with Western countries and their Congolese “strong men” harvesting everything from uranium for atomic bombs to the coltan that powers our phones in the Congo!!! While Nzongola-Ntalaja’s work is a bit too old to fully discuss the smartphone front in detail, he clearly draws a line to how the current travesties of child and adult slave labor are actually “business as usual” in terms of foreign industries’ resource extraction in the Congo.

Things I Struggled With
Now, for the not-so-great. I made the Walter Rodney comparison intentionally, because I found both books to be similarly dry—though I didn’t find Rodney to be as condescending. Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja seems hellbent on this quasi-attached, quasi-detached criticism of every single Congolese freedom movement that took place over the last 200 years. I spoke with my friend who is a historian about this, and they noted that this sort of narrative fence-straddling is woefully common in political histories. The authors seem unsure about whether they want to cast themselves as authentic dissidents commenting on something they know intimately, or culturally-motivated academics making a detached analytical review of their history. This makes for a perspective that is obnoxious in some places, and confusing in others, but never fully enjoyable.

Final Thoughts/Application Corner
You will learn things from this book, but you will be forced to learn them from an author who loves to list the mistakes of every revolutionary that was fighting against Mobutu while said author was *checks notes* in grad school in Wisconsin. When I wasn’t struggling with this lack of self-awareness, I was struggling to keep interest in a story that seems to be written in the driest way possible. If anyone has recommendations for other introductory political books by Congolese authors, I will gladly accept them!

In the meantime, I would highly recommend the Friends of the Congo page on Instagram. Through following this account, I have learned about modern Congolese perspectives, boycotts being held in solidarity with the Congo (such as the iPhone 16 boycott), and how the Congolese genocide connects to Palestine, Sudan, and even the future of “green energy.”

[kripsoo · Rating 5 out of 5]

For anyone interested in the history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo this is the book to read The author is a Congolese with solid academic credentials and a passionate concern for the people of Congo. It covers somewhat more than the last century and the author has been personally involved in the last four decades of Congo's history, bringing penetrating insight and profound knowledge of the inner dynamics of the country's evolution and He has a keen feel for political currents in Kinshasa, even the acerbic humor of "Kinois" society which for instance called the UDI political party in the 90s the "Union des détourneurs incorrigibles" (Union of incorrigible embezzlers) The Preface has a brief autobiography which positions the author in relation to the government there, one which he confronted boldly and This book is a study of the democracy movement in Congo, from the standpoint of popular resistance to exploitation and repression, for a better social and political order" (3), and the perspective molds the entire book and This should not be surprising from a person who spent most of his life in exile and in resistance to the powers governing his own nation and He emphasizes those groups and individuals in Congo's history who have resisted the government and This is not an official history and Along with Democracy, another related theme running through the book is that of the tremendous weight of external influences in Congo's history over the last century and by Beginning with King Leopold of the Belgians, through the colonial rulers which followed him, on to the Cold War superpowers and finally invading neighboring African states like Uganda and Rwanda, Congo's vast riches and strategic location have attracted outsiders and As to Western powers since Congo's independence, they have preferred to support "technocrats" (such as Kengo) rather than leaders with a popular base (like Tshisekedi) who are more likely to listen to the people than the foreigners and He finds Mobutu, Kabila and Bemba to all be exploiters, using the great wealth of the nation to enrich themselves and their external supporters rather than serving the needs of the people and Unlike Ndaywel's longer general history in French and the Author does not cover the pre-colonial period. After the Introduction, the next section covers the colonial period, beginning with the infamous King Leopold of the Belgians, who began the colony under the ironic name of the Congo Free State, founded officially in 1885 and the author describes in detail the suffering of the Congolese people under the cruelties of the exploitative Leopoldian regime, as they were forced to produce ivory and especially rubber for the burgeoning factories of Europe. Hoschchild's recent book on this topic is known to many readers and evaluation of the Belgian Congo regime which followed in 1908 is only somewhat less negative, with the rubrics being economic exploitation, political repression, and cultural oppression and He characterizes the political situation as one of "despotism and total control and The complexity of the politics following independence in 1960 are deftly analyzed, with an emphasis on the machinations of Western powers, a "multilateral conspiracy of imperialists led by the United States" leading among other consequences to the murder of Lumumba, who "died for attempting to uphold the constitutional order, national unity and territorial integrity" and Those who might consider this too harsh an assessment would be counseled to look into the recent book by De Witte, which Author and the recent apologies of the Belgian parliament (the American government has unfortunately not yet had the courage to follow suit). But the author does not hold back from criticizing the other leaders of independence in Congo "for being more concerned with enjoying the material benefits that colonialism and the colour bar had denied them than with a radical transformation of the inherited system And he gives considerable insight into such internal dynamics as the Lulua-Luba conflict in the Kasai near independence time and the author gives a positive assessment of the rebels of the mid-60s, whose aim he states to be "freedom from foreign control and expanded democratic and economic rights" and This is perhaps a bit overly generous to the philosophies of Olenga, Soumialot and Gbenye, although the author does detail some of the shortcomings of these leaders in later pages and Beginning with the coup by Mobutu in 1965, the pace of the book picks up as the author is more knowledgeable about events because he was a participant as well as an academic observer. It should come as no surprise that he is justly highly critical of the Mobutu's rule, but with objectivity he plots the trajectory of the regime, which in its earlier stages was less repressive, and more successful in economic development and the rendering of state services, than in later stages There is a fine analysis of the multitude of organizations involved in repressing popular discontent, including an army of general-entrepreneurs and poorly trained, ill-paid, and extorting soldiers and The 1990s portion of this book is the finest. There is the deserved rich detail on the important Sovereign National Conference (CNS in French) at which he was a delegate, a conference which has received entirely too little attention He is harshly critical of Bishop Monsengwo, who led the conference and even of the Sacred Union leaders, with their "contempt for democratic procedures" but he does point out the main problem, Mobutu, who went about vigorously sabotaging the conference. For those of us who were living in Kinshasa during those exciting and turbulent days, and the author has captured the importance of this crucial turning point in Congolese political history, and deftly analyzed the positive elements of the conference, as well as the cause for its ultimate failure, a failure which, in the light of what followed, can be seen as nothing less than an immense tragedy The political mayhem of the post-SNC period is detailed, and the author himself became deputy president of the National Commission on Elections, which however was sabotaged by opposing political players, including Mobutu Laurent Kabila came to power in 1997 The author explains this process, and castigates the regime he installed as "lacking in vision, competence and concern with the plight of the Congolese people" and This section could have been more detailed, describing the ways in which Kabila repressed the very non-violent political culture, most notably Tshisekedi, as he installed his autocratic regime and the author forcefully refutes the idea that the second rebellion, that of 1998, was a "civil war" He sees it entirely as a foreign invasion by Rwanda and Uganda, bent on enriching themselves But he also accuses the supporters of the Congo government, Angola and Zimbabwe, of financing their war from Congo's riches. The rebel groups are called "puppets" and the Author gives personal experiences, even transcripts of telephone conversations, to prove it and He details the disgusting dealings with "rogue" companies to exploit the areas conquered by the invading Rwandan and Ugandan armies, and wonders why Western powers made such a big fuss about the invasion of Kuwait and none about this invasion. In contrast, he cites the Mai-Mai as the only exception to the somber picture, seen as resistance fighters for democracy Perhaps at the time of his writing this was more true than now, for the viciousness and ethnic motivations of what various Mai-Mai factions are doing today also seems somber But this is a minor criticism of a book which is overall accurate, passionate and well written and One is hard put to find errors in the book, whether the author's or the printer's There is a map, plus chapter endnotes, chronology, bibliography, and index. Professor Nzongola-Ntalaja is very candid in presenting his own quite valid perspectives. In view of his position in Congolese society and his own life of academic achievement and personal political struggle, it is a perspective which must be given great weight and Those who know him personally can attest to his genuine concern for democracy and for the welfare of the people of Congo This is a book which should be read by all those interested in understanding Congo, that huge country in the center of Africa whose history has had repercussions not only on its neighbors, but on the rest of the world

[Lorraine M. Thompson · Rating 5 out of 5]

If you are going to read only one book about the Democratic Republic of Congo this should be the book that you read.

[Brecht Rogissart · Rating 4 out of 5]

“The message that the world community of nations sent to the people of the Congo and Africa as a whole in these two instances is loud and clear. Changes through democratic means and the rule of law in Africa are not as deserving of unequivocal support as changes through the barrel of a gun.” This is how Nzongola starts his book after describing two separate events in the Congo. Changes (including renaming Zaïre back to Congo) implemented by the democratic elected parliament in 1992 were obstructed by Mobutu, a cold-war autocrat supported by the West. 5 years later, rebel leader Kabila forced them through with an armed resistance movement, and once in power the West quickly realigned. The cynicism of Western politics in Africa is more than obvious for the Congo, and Nzongola is not afraid to display it.

This book is a truly masterful summary of Congolese history from 1885 to 2000. Nzongola was a Congolese democratic socialist activist that constantly shifted between academia and international politics. In the Congo, he was often involved in democratic resistance, and this gives him some good juicy insights into the politics of the Congo at various points when he was actually involved. Historical materialist in his writing, he makes a good analysis of the political developments, their impact on Congo’s position in the global capitalist market, and the social classes behind them. It is a powerful alternative to David van Reybrouck’s overhyped history of the Congo.

Notwithstanding the profound analyses of Congolese history, the red lines throughout his history are somewhat ideologically loaded and at points obscures his insights. He basically constantly argues that “the masses” demand a democratic system including economic independence that serves them, which is constrained by Western cynicism (cold-war politics and brute parochial interests), and political elites only interested in sustaining their own kleptocracy. I would not argue this to be untrue, but at points its unsatisfactory. For Mobutu’s reign, for example, Nzongola constantly refers to his disastrous economic policies, which are caused by his elitist desire personal wealth for him and his friends. Nowhere does he make a descent analysis of Congolese economy, the problems of falling copper prices in the ‘70s constraining Mobutu’s reign, or makes a comparison with Suharta’s dictatorship being more ‘succesful’ due to rising oil prices. He wants to discredit Mubutu (rightfully so!), but will go far to blame everything on his personal greed.

At other points, his analysis was truly insightful. For example, he does not agglomerate “The West” as one coherent bloc, but instead reveals their inner competition. Mobutu, in his view, could combine the politics of nationalisation and “africanisation” with integration in the Western bloc by shifting from reliance on Belgian imperialism to US imperialism. Breaking the monopoly of Belgian companies in the Congo, Mobutu made no friends in Brussels, but quickly showed himself to be a valuable asset for the US, as he could sustain the flow of minerals from the Congo to the global market by guaranteeing domestic political stability. I was surprised to learn about the specific French position in the Congo, as well as Belgium’s early rejection of Mobutu due to his anti-Belgian policies. Overall, this book is a must-read for everyone interested in Congolese history. I am waiting for an updated version in which he includes Congolese politics of the 21st century!

[Bảo Ngọc · Rating 3 out of 5]

why the colonial racial mentalities of the Belgians led to the Rwandan genocide;
• how the US stymied parliamentary democracy in the Congo; and
• why Mobutu renamed the country “

Zaire” during his dictatorship.
After King Leopold II’s reign of terror, the Congo became a colony that fueled Belgian economic development.

The democratic movement in the Congo emerged from an alliance between anti-colonialism factions.

The Congo Crisis began as messy decolonization but ended with international forces engineering a new status quo.

The “second independence” movement failed due to internal weaknesses and external interference.

Mobutu was propelled into power by the US in 1965. His rule left the Congo in moral and economic decay.

Mobutu lost foreign backing after the Cold War, allowing the movement for multiparty democracy to advance.

The CNS created a united front for democracy, but it failed to implement a framework.

The conflict in Rwanda brought about Mobutu's fall from power. The First and Second Congo Wars followed.

Now that conflict is over, the future of the Congo depends upon national dialogue

[Chris Lira · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is an excellent and well-written history of the Congo from the time of King Leopold of Belgium to Joseph Kabila, who came to power in 2002. I had read a few books on Congo history and is is my favorite for a few reasons.

One is the smooth flow of the book. Other Congo histories get bogged down in the alphabet soup of political parties, rebel groups and militias, etc. This author uses them sparingly.

The second is the way he presents the details. If a history book has no real details, it's just an overview, and not of much jse to aomeone like me who already has some knowledge. But if an author just dives into deep detail roght off the bat, then a reader can struggle. This author avoids those pitfalls by first introducing things at a higher level, then providing the detail subsequently. This helps with the understanding and retention quite a bit..

[Sakib Ahmed · Rating 5 out of 5]

Throughout the twentieth century, the ordinary people of the Congo sought to institute democracy wherever possible. From King Leopold II onward, whether the United States or Rwandan forces, external players have used humanitarian and political pretexts to push their political and economic agendas on the country. To ensure a future in which the basic needs of all Congolese people are met, rulers need to listen to the people. The development of a true democracy in which civilians determine electoral processes and systems of governance is possible, but it will take serious effort.

[Felipe CZ · Rating 4 out of 5]

The history of the Congolese democratic movement, which had to overcome Belgian colonial rule, then a reign of terror of Mobutu, Congo Wars and a democratic movement. External forces have tried to push their economic and political agendas on the country, but really no one listens to the people, who have suffered much throughout history.

[Micha Arnoldus · Rating 5 out of 5]

Tough but essential read describing the struggle for democracy in the Congo through four historic phases. Nzongola's perspective is of a scholar and insider who's experienced up close or even played a role in key events. Among other things, the book helped me understand the workings of Western manipulation of the Congo's post-colonial state and the tragedy of its kleptocratic political culture.

[Tom Turner · Rating 5 out of 5]

outstanding book. history with a point of view.

[Pritesh Pawar · Rating 3 out of 5]

I would say that I didn't even know much about this country called the Democratic Republic of the Congo. I was just aware that there exists such a country somewhere in Africa.
I got to know a lot about the history of Congo after reading this book. However, the book was far stretched and seemed boring at times. I completed this book somehow only with an attitude that I am getting to know some facts about the history of this country.