The year 2013 marks both the celebration of Italian culture in America and the five-hundred-year anniversary of Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince. Written in 1513, but not published in its entirety until 1532, five years after Machiavelli's death, the author's heady advice has turned his last name into a pejorative adjective, synonymous with deceit, deception, ruthless manipulation, and state-sponsored violence. Irony number one: the man for whom Machiavelli penned the advice for died before he could enjoy it, and irony number two: the de'Medici family, who sponsored the work, never read it.
"The ends justifies the means" is the cliché most associated with Machiavelli. What he wrote, however, in Chapter XVIII of The Prince, is si guarda al fine, which is best translated as "one must think of the final result." Not quite the same thing -- not by a long shot. The context for the phrase is a discussion on whether the prince's words should convey certain virtues. Niccolò, who knew his Latin well, might have been thinking of the Ovidian phrase exitus acta probat, which translates into English as "the outcome justifies the deed," but that is very different from "one must think of the final result."
So Mr. M never wrote the phrase il fine giustifica i mezzi. Marie Antoinette never did say qu'ils mangent des brioches. Darwin, however, did indeed say survival of the fittest, but only as a metaphor for his theory of natural selection. Herbert Spenser would later apply Darwin's phrase to economic theory. Darwin's words were then adapted to support eugenics and other forms of sloppy thinking. Last but not least: Freud never said that where there's a taboo, there is a desire. Each one of these phrases wants to distill the complex personality and theories of prominent historic figures into a memorable sound byte, for the benefit of listless students in the future. It is part of that process of creating sound bytes, wrenching words out of historical context, that ends up transforming culture into banality.
The Prince is considered the handbook for crackpots, wannabee despots, and full-blown dictators on the one hand; the inspiration for tailless Gordon Geckos with or without an MBA, on the other. Lenin kept a copy of Il Principe at his bedside. Mafia dons supposedly cite it as the governing text of their "organization." Somehow, I think it takes a whole lot more than badda bing badda bang to read Don Niccolò's text. Yet it is rather amazing that Mr. M wrote the text at all. Even Tony Soprano lacked the creativity of the de'Medici family as literary patrons. The famiglia for whom Nicky had written and to whom he had dedicated his slim volume had him hoisted up strappado. Machiavellian, eh? Machiavelli endured six drops. The de'Medici family had reclaimed Florence and they were separating the chaff from the seed and wheat. See how cliché mitigates violence? Machiavelli, the diplomat, had nothing to confess to the de'Medici's henchmen. They let him hobble off to his estate. The Prince is a short work for good reason: he wrote the damn thing with both arms broken while recuperating.
Scholars have debated Machiavelli's intention in writing The Prince. The prevailing argument is that he was trying to curry favor with the de'Medicis. Machiavelli's models for leadership were found in the idealized past of a Greek democracy or a Roman republic. He saw that both societies had become corrupt from human weakness. The republic had become Christianized, lost its sense of oligarchy. He had hoped that his Prince would unite all the Italian cities and regions under a single government, but this new man was not to be the hero of the early republic, men such as Publius Valerius, Mucius Scaevola, Coriolanus, and Cincinnatus. Machiavelli wanted a thoroughly new type of man. Machiavelli's ideal man is found in Shakespearean creations: Iago in Othello, Macbeth, Richard of Gloucester in Richard III, and Edmund and Cornwall in King Lear. The Machiavellian education is complete in Prince Hal's journey from reprobate to militant royal in Henry IV and Henry V. The Modern Man is not Hamlet, the indecisive neurotic. Machiavelli's idea of virtue is not Christian, but semantically aligned to the Latin virtus, man.
Machiavelli, a diplomat, had witnessed popes waging war on city-states, the rise and fall of Florence and Venice, personal ups and downs, and the meddling of foreign powers. He despised the Borgias, who, though Italian by birth, were Spanish in origin. He detested the use of mercenaries in the army because there was no loyalty in them. The Catholic Church was to Italian aristocrats what the Empire was to the German prince electors: the institution through which they exerted their residual power in the age of the rising nation states. In matters of faith, for political expediency to avoid moral conflict, Machiavelli seems to have practiced a devout atheist.
In a bizarre twist of literary history, The Prince was roundly attacked in England long before there was an English translation. Edward Dacres would provide the first English translation in 1636, but not before Reginald Pole, the last Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury, had set the stage for a condemnation of Machiavelli in 1539. He declared Machiavelli an "enemy of the human race"; and that "the hand of Satan" had written The Prince. Pole's condemnation makes sense since he is Catholic. Henry VIII would become Fidei defensor (Defender of the Faith) in 1544. Even the Protestants who found Papist conspiracies everywhere were obligated to condemn Machiavelli because he espoused atheism. The French Protestant Innocent Gentillet, a Huguenot, saw Machiavelli's dark thinking as the cause behind the St. Bartholomew's Day massacres in 1572, so he wrote Discours sur les moyens de bien gouverner contre Nicolas Machiavel (1576). Voltaire would help Frederick the Great write Anti-Machiavel (1740), which was rather hypocritical since Frederick himself was wholly Machiavellian in his pursuit of power. Disfavor continued through the centuries.
Modern examples of the Prince all tend to be negative: Russia's Stalin, Cambodia's Pol Pot, China's Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping, and North Korea's Kim Jong iI and successor Kim Jong-un, but it would seem heretical to suggest that American politicians have exhibited Machiavellian traits. Hitler isn't a part of this list because he was a demagogue. Machiavelli's principles animated politics in Western Europe, its colonies, and its logical heirs, the United States. The Founding Fathers referred to the liberated United States as "our rising empire." The Founding Fathers were aristocrats and oligarchs who also understood that as they have rebelled so might those under them rebel against them. They feared a pure democracy. Jefferson worried about whether a republican government "would be practicable beyond the extent of a New England township." The founding few had an empire to build and they drew some of their strategies from Machiavelli.