“The standardized racial and ethnic categories developed in Statistical Directive No. 15 in 1977 (see Chapter One), came with an explicit warning these “classifications should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature.”1 And indeed, the classifications have no valid scientific or anthropological basis. Yet the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) require medical researchers to classify study participants by Directive 15 categories.”