Works of Thomas Hardy discussion

This is the thread to discuss The Withered Arm, a short story from Thomas Hardy's Wessex Tales. It is hosted by Natalie and reading is between 23rd July and 5th August.

This thread opens on 23rd July, but please allow Natalie to comment first! Thanks!

The Withered Arm (1888)
Reading Schedule
Day 1 (23/07)– A Lorn Milkmaid – to “with his pocket-knife in the beech-backed chair”
Day 2 (24/07) – The Young Wife – to “that was as realistic as a photograph”
Day 3 (25/07) – A Vision – to “had such things as this ever happened before?”
Day 4 (26/07) – A Suggestion – to “visible from the spot where they now stood”
Day 5 (27/07) – Conjuror Trendle – to “from the neighbourhood of Holmstoke”
Day 6 (28/07) – A Second Attempt – to “refusing all money as at first”
Day 7 (29/07) – A Ride – to “the hangman she determined to apply”
Day 8 (30/07) – A Water-Side Hermit – to “the White Hart as she had come”
Day 9 (31/07) – A Rencounter
Day 10+ (01/08) Further comments

Text: https://www.online-literature.com/har...

Introduction - The Withered Arm (1888)
The Withered Arm was published in Blackwood Magazine in 1888 and in the collection Wessex Tales the same year. Depicting Hardy’s fatalistic view of the world, it is one of the best known and most gripping of his short stories and I vividly remember turning around the atittudes of a Year 9 class a few years ago when we read it aloud in class. The story is rooted in Hardy's fictional Wessex, the southwestern area of England where Hardy grew up, and in the early superstitions and legends of the area which Hardy heard about from his mother and grandmother which fascinated him all his life. It has elements of the macabre and grotesque which are built up in details with deadly effect scene after scene. It is also a very visual story, a series of tableaux or peepshows of the kind enjoyed by Hardy from boyhood at travelling fairs and circuses. It also has calmer descriptive passages like landscape paintings.

Day 1 Summary
The scene is set in the dairy (reminding me a bit of Tess), the gossip of the workers, and the introduction of one of the main characters of the story Rhoda Brook (the lorn milkmaid). Everybody has an opinion about Farmer Lodge’s marriage to a young wife (at any rate much younger than him). At the end of this section we see Rhoda asking her twelve-year-old son to get information about the wife and bring it back to her. We also see the cottage where the mother and her son live.
What do you think of this opening section?

Day 1 Glossary
Lorn – forlorn, desolate, forsaken
In full pail – in full milk
Anglebury – Wareham - https://victorianweb.org/photos/hardy...
Tisty-tosty – round like a ball (a tisty-tosty was a ball made of cowslips or primroses)
Barton – farmyard
Laved – baled or drew water
What the Turk – what the Devil
Milchers – cows kept for milking
The evening is pinking in – the sun is beginning to set (a favourite country expression of Hardy’s)
Turves – pieces of turf cut from the ground

Thanks so much for starting us off so well with this gripping tale, Natalie! I can well imagine how it made your students catch their breath! I'm off to read the first section and mark the breaks in my copy now 😊

It seems like Farmer Lodge is the father of the milkmaid's son, and she is living in poverty. The milkmaid is understandably curious, and probably jealous, that the farmer is bringing home a young wife. One of the things she wants her son to notice about the young wife is whether her hands were white and unworn by work. The condition of someone's hands told a lot about their social and economic status.

This is another one of my favorite Hardy stories, though again I'd read it before I read Wessex Tales (I first encountered it in the excellent anthology Charles Keeping's Classic Tales of the Macabre, which as yet I've never reviewed). I actually might take time to reread this one with you all, though since I've read it before and am also in the process of reading a novel by a different author, I probably won't keep to the official schedule. (But I'll refrain from posting any spoilers; of course!)

What I love about this first part is the attention to detail. Especially the thatch described as bone poking out of the roof at the end, probably the first macabre element. And the oak tree where they hang their milk pails: 'the peeled limb of an oak-tree, set upright in the earth, and resembling a colossal antlered horn." I guess the tree also prefigures the withered arm of the title.

What an interesting beginning to the story! A new bride, an old lover, a son (acknowledged?). One can imagine the young Rhoda Brook being swept off her feet by the young Farmer and then jilted (?.....that's an assumption) when she found herself with child.

Interesting that she's still working for Farmer Lodge, though. Weren't the girls mostly let go and driven off if found with child?

Like I said, interesting start to the story. I've got plenty of questions already.

The writing is very atmospheric.

Day 2 Summary - The Young Wife
In this part we get an up close desription of the Farmer’s new bride as observed by Rhoda’s son (on her instructions). I love the contrast between the thin, tall, work hardened Rhoda and the new bride. The son tries to get a look at her hands to see if she is a lady, but because they are gloved, he never does. She seems to be troubled by the noise the fabric of her dress is creating against the pew in church, where everyone has come that Sunday to get a good look at her. Rhoda is still wanting more though, and instructs her son to keep on reporting back when he sees her, though she will never walk the distance to where they live to get a glance of her herself.

Day 2 Glossary
Holmstoke – East Holme
Gig – two-wheeled one-horse carriage
Yeoman – usually applies to a landholder (the class between gentry and labourer)
Riband – ribbon
Dilatoriness – slowness, procrastination
Hundredweight – 112 lbs or 50 kg
Ricks – stacks of hay in open air
The hare you wired – The hare you caught in a wire
Gownd – (dialect) gown, dress
Whewed – half-whistled

It's kind of upsetting that Rhoda makes her son do the spying. Whatever this story is leading up to, the son is innocent in it. But he's being made a part of a triangle that isn't of his doing.

It was weird that young wife is so concerned about the noise her dress is making but perhaps it's because it draws attention to her while in a confined building, making the eyes that are on her even more noticeable to herself. It would be an uncomfortable sermon what with everyone watching so closely.

The young wife had a silk dress that was "silver-coloured." Maybe she was also wearing starched petticoats that might be noisy. Probably everyone else in church had cotton gowns which would be noiseless when they moved.

Rhoda was getting information about the young wife from her son and the other milkers. The last sentence in this section is:

"Rhoda Brook could raise a mental image of the unconscious Mrs Lodge that was realistic as a photograph."

I was surprised at the mention of photography, and found it was invented in 1822. This story was published in 1888. We wonder what is going to happen when we see the word "unconscious."

That's what I thought too, Connie . . . what could "unconscious" mean. Farmer Lodge seemed very pleased that his wife's dress rustled as she walked. He wants people to notice her, but she wants to fade into the background. Maybe??

It appears Rhoda's boy is not acknowledged by his father. Too bad. He seems like such a nice boy, working hard and taking care of his mother's requests.

I just wanted to comment on the first section (sorry to be late) about the cows. First, I loved how Hardy calls them "red, rectangular animals". I also I thought it clever and charming how it looks like the cows are doing the talking as the milkmaids are gossiping. That made me chuckle.

Bridget wrote: "I just wanted to comment on the first section (sorry to be late) about the cows. First, I loved how Hardy calls them "red, rectangular animals". I also I thought it clever and charming how it looks..."

I also love how the gossip of the milkers seems to appear from the cows' bellies. I wonder why he chose red rectangular to describe the cows. Almost as if they have no soft form and shape but are more angular.

Connie wrote: "The young wife had a silk dress that was "silver-coloured." Maybe she was also wearing starched petticoats that might be noisy. Probably everyone else in church had cotton gowns which would be nois..."

Perhaps she was just so modest she didn't want to be noticed by others and give herself airs. While the farmer was proud to show of his young pretty wife, almost like a trophy.

Day 3 Summary – A Vision
Gertrude Lodge appears to Rhoda in her sleep with distorted features and a cruel expression. She appears to sit on Rhoda’s chest then moves away before approaching again. Rhoda, much disturbed, grabs the spectre’s left arm and flings her away. The following night, the lady herself appears at the cottage with a basket containing boots for the boy. She then visits twice more in the next few days, on the last occasion shows Rhoda something which has been bothering her on her arm. Rhoda is both struck by how gentle and kind Gertrude is (in stark contrast to the image of the spectre) and the guilt which she feels at seemingly having caused the marks and discoloration on Gertude’s arm, alarmed that she may have subconscious supernatural powers.

Day 3 Glossary
Incubus – evil spirit, supposed to descend on people in their sleep
Chimmer – chamber, bedroom
Meads – meadow lands

Some more information on the 'incubus'. The precise translation is 'nightmare induced by a demon'. It usually refers to a male evil spirit descending on a woman to seduce them at night. Interesting that Hardy makes the incubus female (the actual term for female incubus is 'succubus') because of course the conflict is really between the two women with jealousy being the driving force. A scientific explanation of incubus is sleep paralysis which gives the feeling of being suffocated, which is what Rhoda feels when the spectre is sitting on her chest.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incubus...

Wow today's section really is steeped in folklore!

Just to add to your excellent notes Natalie, Wareham ("Anglebury") still looks pretty much like it did in the old photograph!😊 It's a bustling market town, with a pretty lock right by its centre where you can sit on a bench or the grass and watch the water birds and odd boats bobbing up and down. It has a great library too, and a vintage weekly market; an old fashioned town.

East Holme ("Hokmstoke") is a smaller village only a few miles away. This is where Thomas Hardy set his dairy farm ... and as you said, it will have reminded us all of Talbothay's in Tess of the D'Urbervilles. We saw in our group read how kind the dairyman was there, and here we also have a sensive person in chargem who protects Rhoda from gossip.

The farmer's new wife's dress will have been made of silk, which rustles. At the time it was a much more expensive fabric, and never worn by common village folk. We are told that Farmer Lodge is prosperous and wears fine clothes and accessories himself. He would want to show off his new bride. Also, everyone would be wearing "Sunday best" for church, so Mrs. Lodge is wearing a fine gown of silver-coloured silk, which she is clearly not used to.

She is embarrassed by the sussuration (my word not Thomas Hardy's - sorry but I love it so had to get it in!) but her husband welcomes it, probably because he is proud and would welcome anything which emphasises the distinction between him and the workers.

Mrs. Lodge is modest though, and her dress when visiting Rhoda is simpler and of her own choice. It is probably a muslin or fine lawn dress, which is softer, and does not rustle or stand out. She is not at all ostentatious, so perhaps she comes from a family which is not as wealthy.

I feel she is conscious of her duty, and accepting of her position as Christian gentry. She is behaving as squires' wives and daughters often did, visiting the poorer folk who work for them and live on their land, or those who are ill, with food, and a cheery face.

Yes, I love Gertrude, she is a really sweet character. Thanks for all your notes on the places and fabrics. I holidayed in Wareham as a small child in a caravan and remember eating an icecream there and looking at the photo several times in an album.

Just to check in, I am rereading this tale now, and really enjoying it! It's been over 30 years since I read it; I'd remembered greatly liking it, but sadly I'd forgotten a LOT of the details. So this experience is really very much like a brand-new read. :-) (Thanks for choosing it, Natalie!)

Natalie!! 😀 (off-topic, and would ruin the atmosphere, so under a) (view spoiler)[That ice-cream shop is still there! Wonderful home-made ice cream, which if you are lucky doesn't melt before you get to the lock a little down the road next to the inn.

We have a caravan near Abbotsbury, but cannot get there because our new rescue dog is terrified of the car. Not seeing the cygnets hatch, or being in my happy place during the summer is eating me up 😥 (hide spoiler)]

Day 4 Summary - A suggestion
Gertrude's arm is deteriorating further, she is now using a sling and finds it difficult to ride. She is worried that her husband is finding her less attractive even if she covers the arm up because he knows the disfigurement is there. Gertrude asks Rhoda to accompany her to visit Conjuror Trendle, an exorcist who lives on Egdon Heath. Rhoda is at first very reluctant, but ultimately agrees to accompany Gertrude on the five-mile walk there. They agree to meet outside to avoid suspicion.

Day 4 Glossary
fatality - a predestined liability to disaster, a fatal influence
Conjuror - One believed to possess magical powers of healing, spell-casting. A Conjuror Trendle is mentioned in Chapter 21 of Tess

I have found a 1973 BBC adaptation of The Withered Arm in parts.
Parts 1 and 2 correspond to parts 1-5 of the story up to the meeting with Conjuror Trendle
Here is the first part:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KxTVi...

Here are Farmer Lodge and Gertrude coming out of the church on the Sunday where everyone observed them:
https://www.dorsetlife.co.uk/wp-conte...

Natalie wrote: "...an exorcist who lives on Egdon Heath."

Egdon Heath also figures prominently in Hardy's novel The Return of the Native. Real-life Dorset actually has scattered areas of heath in that general vicinity, although in his fictional geography of "Wessex," Hardy apparently merges them together into one large area. (See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egdon_H... .)

Werner wrote: "Natalie wrote: "...an exorcist who lives on Egdon Heath."

Egdon Heath also figures prominently in Hardy's novel The Return of the Native. Real-life Dorset actually has scattered areas of heath in ..."

Yes, Egdon Heath is brilliantly portrayed throughout The Return of the Native. It becomes a character almost. It is also portrayed in The Mayor of Casterbridge. It was sparsely populated by the people who cut the furze (gorse) and is connected with superstition and witchcraft.

Hello, everybody! I'm sorry I couldn't join you earlier, but I'd love to read this story with you.

Natalie, thank you for leading us, and for your insightful comments! You are good at spotting the macabre - and I'm saying this as a lover of scary fiction :)
Special thanks for alerting us to the adaptation! I do want to watch it, but I'd prefer to watch the whole film when we finish the story.

I've found 'tisty-tosty' could also mean pleasant:
https://www.wordsandphrasesfromthepas...

Werner, thank you for the link to the anthology! I know and like some of the stories there, so I'm very interested in reading the rest :)

Petra, I agree, the writing is very atmospheric, I felt like I could smell the milk %)

It surprised me that Rhoda's son knows the farmer is his father; I do not think the farmer ever accepted him, so it tells us something about Rhoda's character.

I loved the frase, 'cleanly shaven like an actor' :)

As Jean has pointed out, it's nice that there is somebody kind in the dairy who's on Rhoda's side - I'm afraid she might need help soon. It seems like the rest view her rather as a curiosity.

Wow, the nightmare scene is impressive!
The word 'incubus' etymologically means somebody who lies or sits on top vs the succubus who lies beneath, - this is why the apparition on top is called incubus here even though it's more typical for female demons to be called succubi.
I love this painting of an incubus by Fuseli :)


Jean, I'm sorry you haven't yet got to the caravan! I wish all your family comfort.

Rhoda's agreeing to accompany Gertrude speaks well for herself, she's willing to help and doesn't want to stand in the way of Gertrude's healing; but I'm afraid it might get her into trouble.
Have any of you wondered what you would have done in Rhoda's place?

Plateresca wrote: "Hello, everybody! I'm sorry I couldn't join you earlier, but I'd love to read this story with you.

Natalie, thank you for leading us, and for your insightful comments! You are good at spotting the..."

Thanks Plateresca. I'm really interested in the incubus and succubus now and especially looking at artwork is very helpful so thanks for including that painting. I find it so refreshing of Hardy to develop the female characters so well (he's so good at females but less so at men... I think Farmer Oak and the Mayor of Casterbridge are the only two done as well as any of the female characters...). The boy I find curious as he is so obedient to do what his mother asks... I would have found it impossible to do. Rhoda I think is such an interesting character as she appears to have special powers but is so afraid or wary of them... She is something of an outcast in the dairy.

Rhoda may have secret powers, but she seems to be using them subconsciously instead of deliberately. In her "secret heart," she did not want to cause pain to Gertrude, but she's not unhappy that the farmer considers Gertrude to be less attractive because her arm is withered.

It's interesting that the other workfolk might think of Rhoda as a sorceress, and think she may know the whereabouts of the exorcist. Did the workfolk think that Rhoda put a spell on Farmer Lodge years ago, resulting in their affair? Did something else happen in the past, or is it just superstition?

Connie wrote: "Rhoda may have secret powers, but she seems to be using them subconsciously instead of deliberately. In her "secret heart," she did not want to cause pain to Gertrude, but she's not unhappy that th..."
Her obsession with finding out the details of Gertrude's face and body at first, and never being satisfied with what her son tells her, but unwilling to set eyes on her at first, allowed her to conjure up the image of her as precisely as a photograph. I think that she then subconsciously recreated the image of Gertrude in the nightmare, and the fact that the wedding ring flashes on her hand shows her resentment to Farmer Lodge. He is a shady character, focused on appearances (as superficial as a celebrity actor?!) and totally disregarding his son. I remember the milkers say that Rhoda can't be jealous as she hasn't talked of/to him for years...

Natalie wrote: "I think that she then subconsciously recreated the image of Gertrude in the nightmare, and the fact that the wedding ring flashes on her hand shows her resentment to Farmer Lodge. He is a shady character, "

Even though Hardy is telling us about the conflict between these two women, I keep thinking that Rhoda's anger should be directed at Farmer Lodge. But then it's a tale as old as time that the women go after each other, and the man escapes unscathed.

They don't usually go after each other in spectral dream sequences though, and therein lies the brilliance of this story - the witchcraft element. Usually, someone like Rhoda would harm the reputation of her rival through gossip - of the kind which starts this story. But Rhoda doesn't participate in that, instead she harms her rival physically with powers she doesn't even know she possesses (as Connie said).

I love how Hardy is fully developing both of these women. We like Gertrude - because everybody seems to like Gertrude. But we also like Rhoda, who works hard and is raising a son on her own without help.

The son is a curious character. As Natalie said: "The boy I find curious as he is so obedient to do what his mother asks... I would have found it impossible to do". I have two sons, and I find it impossible to make them obedient as well. But now I'm starting to wonder if Rhoda isn't unconsciously using witchcraft to control her son. That would explain a lot of his behavior. (I wish I could get some of that to use on my own boys!! LOL)

Bridget wrote: "...therein lies the brilliance of this story - the witchcraft element. Usually, someone like Rhoda would harm the reputation of her rival through gossip - of the kind which starts this story. But Rhoda doesn't participate in that, instead she harms her rival physically with powers she doesn't even know she possesses...."

The interpretive question here is whether Hardy wants us to understand that Rhoda actually possesses real (at least, for purposes of the story) supernatural power that she can wield subconsciously; or whether he sees this sequence of events as an example of deep-seated psychic influences at work, analogous to the "Mesmeric" connections between people that sometimes figure in Dickens' novel Oliver Twist. Both times that I've read this, I've leaned towards the purely psychic interpretation; but this time, that conclusion is reinforced by the recent discussion, in another group, of how widespread the interest in mesmeric and psychic phenomena was in 19th-century England.

If I'm correct that Rhoda isn't an actual witch (subconsciously or otherwise), then witchcraft isn't a factor in her son's willingness to obey her. A more probable cause is cultural. This tale is set in roughly the early 1830s in a traditional rural community, and the boy is about 12. Nobody would suggest that kids that age in that place and time were never disobedient; but they were certainly socialized to be obedient, both in the home and the surrounding society. The latter in particular didn't glamorize disobedience, and didn't send messages to the parents that insisting on obedience is deviant and shameful. IMO, it's quite likely that for this boy, minding his mother would be far more of a normal thing than it would be for many 12-year-olds in 2023.

Werner wrote: " whether he sees this sequence of events as an example of deep-seated psychic influences at work, analogous to the "Mesmeric" connections between people that sometimes figure in Dickens' novel Oliver Twist"

Oh, yes, Werner you are right - all the elements of mesmerism are here too. One could easily interpret the story as you have. In fact, mesmerism was my first thought in the "Visitation" section. (Like you, I'm immersed in that right now in the Dickens read of Oliver Twist.)

But then I started thinking about how Hardy is known to have believed in the supernatural, and ghosts from a young age, influenced by his mother's beliefs. And that lead me to wonder along the witchcraft bent. I believe fictional Egdon Heath is rife with stories of witches and witchcraft as is real life Dorchester. Again, I think either interpretation is plausible. It's interesting to think about both and compare them.

As far as the boy, oh heavens you are spot on that a normal 12-year-old in 1830 would be far more obedient than my current 15-year-old!! (I deeply lament that is true :-) I do think there is something odd about, as Plateresca said, the boy knowing who his father is - and being nonchalant about it. At that time and place in the world, I expected it would be a shameful thing that no one talks about. Couple that with his obedience and it makes for potentially outsized motherly influence. Not proof of witchcraft, but something that makes me go hmmmmmm???

Good points, Bridget! In the context of Hardy's beliefs and background, the witchcraft interpretation is viable, too --and the ambiguity gives the story more complexity.

Very curious about mesmerism never heard of it. Can you post any links for me to read? I haven't read Oliver Twist though it's on my to read list this year. Will post the next part summary and glossary in a couple of hours as I have been without a computer this morning.

Natalie wrote: "Very curious about mesmerism never heard of it. Can you post any links for me to read?"

Natalie, a really good introductory link, which both Bridget and I referenced indirectly, is here: https://www.goodreads.com/topic/show/... . (That also has the advantage of being a Goodreads link, so the Goodreads management won't censor it here. :-) ) See messages 5-7 in particular.

Lovely thanks Werner, think I will get myself a copy of Oliver Twist now...

Natalie wrote: "Lovely thanks Werner, think I will get myself a copy of Oliver Twist now..."

Hope you enjoy it, Natalie! :-)

Agree that it would be amazing if my children were as obedient as Rhoda's son! Everything I ask them to do at the moment is met with a resounding 'no' (with teenage attitude).

Day 5 Summary
Though still reluctant, Rhoda keeps her promise and walks to meet Gertrude on the edge of the heath so they can go together to Conjuror Trendle’s cottage. When they arrive, the Conjuror plays down his skills and does not seem that willing to help. He takes one look at Gertrude’s arm and says that there is no medical cure as it is the ‘work of an enemy’. Using the technique of oomancy, where eggs are used to tell the future, he cracks an egg white into a glass of water, where it is said to assume the shape of something significant to the beholder: in this case Gertrude’s enemy. After this, which Rhoda has observed from outside the door, they walk home in almost complete silence and Rhoda notes that Gertrude’s attitude has changed. In the local community, there is gossip that Gertrude’s affliction is due to being bewitched by Rhoda and the following sprint she and her boy move away from the area.

Day 5 Glossary
Occult – mystical, supernatural or magical powers, practices or phenomena
Wessex King Ina – The story of Ina, King of the West Saxons, is told by William Camden in Britannica (1586), and is similar to that of Shakespeare’s play, King Lear.
Furze – spiny evergreen shrub with yellow flowers, used for fuel when dried
Sharp sand – (dialect) clean, gritty sand used in building
He brought a tumbler….assumed – Oomancy, or divination of the future by eggs, was a widespread superstitious practice, stemming from many primitive cultures.
Garniture – vegetation
Overlooked – bewitched

More information about: King Ine (or Ina, Ini) of Wessex
After acceding to the throne in 689, King Ine controlled much of the western half of Wessex. However, he struggled to keep a tight grip on the eastern half of the kingdom so turned his attention to the kingdom of Dumnonia – encompassing much of modern-day Devon, Cornwall and Somerset.
Unfortunately, documented information from this period of Anglo-Saxon history is scarce and much of what we know is subject to conjecture. It’s believed that in 710, King Ina and Nothhelm of Sussex joined forces against Geraint of Dumnonia. Geraint was killed and the Wessex border advanced west to the river Tamar.
Five years later, Ini of Wessex was said to have fought a battle at Woden’s Barrow in Wiltshire, either with the king of Mercia or against him but again, the battle wasn’t documented, nor were the belligerents.
King Ine abdicated the throne in 726 and is said to have travelled to Rome. According to Bede, a late-seventh and early-eighth century monk and chronicler, he wanted to leave his kingdom ‘to younger men’ but he didn’t name an heir.

Not sure what was meant to have happened on the heath with King Ina (can't find any references to this) but if there are parallels with King Lear, as the notes in my book suggest, the heath could be an exposed, stormy and dangerous place where characters can go mad.

I read this article online about oomancy which is really interesting:
https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles...

Ancient Greek soothsayers coined the term, which stems from the words for “egg” (oon) and “divination” (manteia).

Apparently, divination used easy to come by objects that you would find in the kitchen and was therefore most usually practised by women, although obviously not the case in this story.

I'm late to the reading but hope to catch up soon. I've just finished another Hardy short story, The Three Strangers, with the magnificent explanations of Connie and am sure that this tale will be good as well. Thank you Natalie for taking on the guidance of our reading.

Natalie, thanks for all the interesting information about oomancy. I've wondered if the shapes in the egg white were similar to the blobs in a Rorschach inkblot tests where the troubled mind of the observer plays a large part in what they feel they are seeing.

If Gertrude suspected Rhoda, she would "see" her face in the glass. If she had suspected another person, her mind would "see" a different face in the egg mixture. While I'm skeptical with a 21st Century mentality, people probably thought it was totally true in the old folktales. The superstitions were a way to give meaning to all the things they did not understand, and certainly make the story vivid and exciting.