An Analysis and Critique: 

Linguistic Features of Hamlet and “The Hill We Climb”

1.1 Description of Selected Pieces

Linguistics—the scientific study of language—is a crucial component to understanding humanity. Studying written and spoken word throughout time can offer insights to various cultures, societies, and standards of living. This paper will focus on linguistic features to analyze Shakespeare’s Hamlet—Hamlet’s soliloquy in act 3, scene 1, lines 64-98, specifically— in comparison to Amanda Gorman’s “The Hill We Climb.” Both pieces are known in written and spoken form and reflect their respective time periods and cultures.

Shakespeare’s Hamlet was written as fiction sometime between 1599-1601 and was published a few years later in 1603; though it is published in written form, it was written with the intent to perform as a play in spoken form. Amanda Gorman’s “The Hill We Climb” is also published in written form, though it first gained popularity as a spoken call-to-action, focusing on social justice. Gorman first recited the poem at Joe Biden’s presidential inauguration on January 20, 2021. Despite the similarity of being written in English with intent for speech, over four-hundred years separate the two pieces, resulting in great cultural and linguistic differences. This paper will explore those differences by analyzing historical influences, dialect, and/or the morphological and phonological breakdowns.

1.2 Rationale for Selection 

Over four-hundred years separate the publication of Hamlet and “The Hill We Climb.” this analysis will shed light on the dramatic transformation of the English language. Shakespearean/Elizabethan English (Early Modern English) differs drastically from modern American English, though it’s still recognizable. These various dialects also shed light on the cultural differences of each time period—English Elizabethan era versus contemporary America. Shakespeare—a White male—offers insight into the struggles, concerns, and joys of England during the Elizabethan era whereas Gorman—a Black female—offers insights into the struggles, concerns, and joys of modern America. The reach of the English language is extremely valuable and apparent when compared in these two works.

1.3 Morphological and/or Phonological Perspectives

In Hamlet, Shakespeare uses Early Modern English (not to be confused with Old English) which follows slightly different grammar styles than modern American English. For instance, take the case of proclitic and enclitic usage. Shakespeare commonly uses proclitics, as apparent when he says, “Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer” (Shakespeare 65). This exemplifies the usage of “‘tis” which is the contraction of “it is” with a reduced pronoun. In contrast, Gorman sticks to enclitics, exemplified when she says, “It’s because being American is more than a pride we inherit,” utilizing modern grammar styles for the “it is” contraction by reducing the verb (Gorman 52). This highlights the differentiations in common contractions between the two time periods. Shakespeare is also known for the creation of new words by combining affixes and/or morphemes in a way that provides new meaning. For instance, Shakespeare was noted as creating words such as dauntless or lackluster, whereas Gorman sticks to commonly used and understood morphemes rather than experimenting with new word combinations.

Interestingly, both works also start with a rhetorical question regarding humanity, with poetic, soft-sounding phonetics. Gorman’s speech focuses on how humanity can do better and persevere as a whole whereas Hamlet’s soliloquy focuses on life versus death, but they both encourage self-reflection of the audience/reader on an individual level. Shakespeare famously starts Hamlet’s soliloquy with, “to be or not to be,” focusing on quick, snappy monomorphemic words that flow. The bilabial stops of / b / in “be” following / u / in “to” gives each word extra phonetic emphasis. Gorman’s opening focuses more on the sound of / k /, a velar consonant in her opening lines. She starts with, “When day comes we ask ourselves, / Where can we find light in this never-ending shade, / the loss we carry, a sea we must wade?’” (1-3). The / k / offers a notably harsher contrast to the otherwise soft surrounding vowels and balances the repetitiveness of the voiced labio-velar approximant of / w /.

Throughout the soliloquy, Shakespeare uses repetitive phrases such as “to die” and “to sleep,” to add morphological emphasis—it’s clear he’s speaking of death. These straightforward, shorter, monomorphemic phrases amidst a plethora of longer, polymorphemic phrases, such as “The heartache and the thousand natural shocks” creates an added weight and dramatizes the shorter counterparts (Shakespeare 70). Gorman, similarly, balances monomorphemes and polymorphemes for emphasis, but she mostly focuses on repetition, alliteration, and rhyme. She says, “We’ve braved the belly of the beast,” focusing on the poetic alliteration of the / b / bilabial stops, choosing metaphors over reality to stress the phonetics (Gorman 4). Overall, Gorman’s piece has phonetic prominence—focusing on sound and flow—whereas Shakespeare’s piece has morphologic importance—focusing on meaning. 

2.1 Semantic Perspective

A semantic shift is apparent in Hamlet and “The Hill We Climb,” in the way both Shakespeare and Gorman use the word dream, but with differing meanings. Shakespeare uses dream as a noun when he says, “For in that sleep of death what dreams may come” (Shakespeare 74): He refers to a dream as “A series of images, thoughts, and emotions, often with a story-like quality, generated by mental activity during sleep; the state in which this occurs” (OED). The definition of this word usage dates back to Middle English, whereas Gorman uses a more modern definition of the word. She refers to dream as a verb when she says she “can dream of becoming president” (Gorman 19). This definition is noted as “A vision or hope for the future; (in early use chiefly) a vain hope or idle fantasy; (now also) an ideal, goal, ambition, or aspiration” (OED). Originally, the word dream was used as a noun, referring to the state occurring in sleep, but as time passed, it came to refer “to an imagined vision or fantasy indulged in reverie or daydreaming” (Word Origin). In 1931, James Truslow Adams, coined the term “American dream” in his work, The Epic of America, which aided in increased usage of the latter definition above. Though both definitions of the word dream are common nowadays, in the Elizabethan Era, it was primarily used to express the state of sleep rather than an abstract ideal or hope for the future. 

It’s further noted that Shakespeare and Gorman use different words to express similar ideas. For instance, Shakespeare writes “Who would fardels bear” (84). Fardels is a figurative noun meaning “A burden or load of sin, sorrow, etc.” (OED). In comparison, Gorman expresses a similar idea in her line, “Our blunders become their burdens” (85). Burdens is also noted as a figurative noun meaning “A load of labour, duty, responsibility, blame, sin, sorrow, etc.” (OED). Fardels is not as common in contemporary times, as it is considered a form of archaic language. Burden is the more commonly used term to express the same idea. Gorman’s poem is written in the form of contemporary Modern English, whereas Shakespeare employs archaic language: orison, fardel, contumely. 

Both authors notably use euphemisms as a way to express otherwise complex concepts. For instance, Shakespeare’s famous “to be or not to be” opening line itself is an example of a euphemism (64). It’s a less direct way of contemplating life versus death, specifically in the case of suicide, as “not to be” softens the otherwise harsh implication of death. Gorman uses phrases such as “never-ending shade” to politely refer to America’s dark period of social injustice, police brutality, and political uproar (2). Though euphemisms and metaphors appear abundantly throughout both pieces, meaning is never lost or muddled. 

2.2 Changes

William Shakespeare and Amanda Gorman have almost four-hundred years separating their works. Hamlet was published in 1603, whereas Gorman’s poem debuted in 2021. Though both works are written in Modern English, Gorman’s language is slightly different from what’s considered “the early Modern English spoken by Shakespeare,” also known as Elizabethan English (Denham 12). Shakespeare’s language is understood by modern speakers of English, however some wording and phrases are archaic. This is illustrated in the following passage from Shakespeare’s Hamlet:

            To sleep, perchance to dream. Ay, there’s the rub,

            For that sleep of death what dreams may come,

            When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,

            Must give us pause. There’s the respect

            That makes calamity of so long life. (73-77)

Though the message is still clear to a modern audience, it indeed reads outdated. In order to modernize the passage, certain words and phrases would need to be exchanged. For instance, perchance would be likely be exchanged for perhaps or maybe. Shakespeare’s coined phrase “Ay, there’s the rub,” would be expressed as “Aha, that’s the catch,” in modern English if it were to target Gorman’s same audience. Catch used as a noun to express the “hidden cost, qualification, etc.; something by which the unwary may be entrapped,” (Catch) wasn’t recorded as slang until 1855, making it a more recent idiom choice than “there’s the rub.” Though “shuffled off this mortal coil,” is seldom used—it feels stiflingly archaic for a modern audience of the general American population. This could instead be said as “gone to the afterlife,” “gone to the great beyond,” or “gone to meet their maker,” if written by Gorman. Modern speakers of informal English often don’t say things such as “must give us pause,” and instead would be inclined to say, “makes us hesitate,” or even “makes us stop and think.” Calamity is another word that still holds meaning yet feels old-fashioned compared to alternative synonyms more commonly used, such as disaster or tragedy, or even catastrophe as Gorman uses in “The Hill We Climb”. Finally, the phrase “so long life” feels a bit awkward and puzzling, considering it’s known modernly as a parting salutation. Gorman would likely write the phrase to better fit her modern audience by saying, “a persistent life,” “an enduring life,” or even something as simple as, “a long life.” Though “so long” is more commonly associated with good-bye rather than the term lingering or “overly long” in modern times, it wasn’t known as a parting salutation until 1860 (So Long).

2.3 Register Levels

Despite the seemingly formal writing of Shakespeare’s archaic version of early Middle English, he uses informal writing—a mix of both casual and intimate registers—in the “to be or not to be” soliloquy. The repetitive usage of ’tis and th’ as contractions is informal. The usage of ay as an interjection in “Ay, there’s the rub” works as almost as a type of slang in the casual register (Shakespeare 73). Furthermore, the entire soliloquy is written as if Hamlet is having an epiphany. He speaks his deepest thoughts of life, death, and suicide, aloud in a seemingly personal manner which alludes to an intimate register alongside the casual. This is further apparent when Hamlet says “Soft you now” to himself, as if reminding himself to end the soliloquy before Ophelia hears his thoughts. Since it is a stream of consciousness and Hamlet is addressing himself, the tone is kept informal. On top of this, Shakespeare’s overall register is frozen, as it remains unchanged though language has shifted through time.

Though Gorman’s poem was recited at the presidential inauguration, she does not use a formal register. Her poem is addressing both the president and the American people congruently—two varying audiences—in a neutral register that leans more informal than formal. For instance, she uses contractions such as we’ve, we’re, and isn’t which indicate an informal tone. A formal tone would refrain from the usage of contractions, opting to use we have, we are, and is notinstead. The poem is also recited in first-person—rather than third-person as most formal registers are. This is apparent through Gorman’s repetitive usage of we: “When day comes we ask ourselves” (1). Though the poem reads as informal, Gorman’s delivery is on the formal end of the neutral register. She verbally recites the poem in a formal manner, with the same crisp, clear, annunciation in proper speech.

2.4 Dialects

Shakespeare notably speaks with Original Pronunciation which combines accents from many regions across the U.K. His works rose to prominence during Chaucer’s great vowel shift—where much debate on vowel phonetics was occurring. Though Shakespeare’s vowel pronunciations are similar to present Modern English, the original plays still held a hint of Chaucer’s long vowel pronunciation. Shakespeare’s dialect was essentially a meeting point between the original and shifted vowel sounds. In Hamlet’s soliloquy specifically, dialect is expressed through apostrophes. The accent is apparent through contractions such a th’ which omitts the final vowel, and o’er omitting the / ʋ / sound all together to sound more like a one-syllable or rather than the two-syllable over.

Gorman’s dialect in “The Hill We Climb,” is that of present-day Modern English. In her speech, Amanda keeps a neutral, Standard American English accent, with a focus on annunciating the syllable of each word clearly. Though she uses contractions such as don’t or isn’t, she sticks to standard grammatical practices and does not omit any consonants or drop or shorten any vowels. The poem’s neutral dialect reflects that of a modern, educated American when read.

2.5 Stylistic Elements

Both Shakespeare and Amanda Gorman rely heavily on figurative language to express abstract thoughts or emotions. Gorman uses metaphor extensively in “The Hill We Climb,” as apparent in the title of the poem itself. Further examples of her use of metaphor are seen in, “the loss we carry, a sea we must wade,” and in “And yet the dawn is ours” (Gorman 3-4,10). Likewise, Shakespeare uses metaphor when he writes, “Or to take arms against a sea of troubles” (Shakespeare 67). Despite the hundreds of years separating their writing, both authors use a metaphor of the word seaspecifically to represent a large obstacle that can be overcome by man.

Both authors also use rhetorical questions similarly. Hamlet questions himself during the “to be or not to be” soliloquy, asking “Than fly to others that we know not of?” (90). Meanwhile, Gorman implores the entire nation when she asks, “where can we find light in this never-ending shade?” (2). Shakespeare questions the complementary antonyms of life and death whereas Gorman questions the rhetorical location of peace in our nation. Gorman’s metaphorical usage of light and shade also reflects usage of complementary antonyms. Both Shakespeare and Gorman are beseeching the audience to contemplate heavy topics, through metaphorical expressions of otherwise complex concepts. In another bout of similarity, both authors also employ enjambment, flowing their lines without pause for most of the recited poem for added emphasis.

Gorman also notably uses repetition throughout her poem, in order to emphasize the importance of togetherness. She uses we—or a contraction containing it—over fifty total times. This is to stress the idea of the American people coming together as one; it highlights her point that the citizens of the country are not separate identities, but one same group of people made up of individuals. Her poem is meant to spark hope for forging a new and better future, by using we she brings herself, the president, the government, and the people together.

2.6 Use of Language

Shakespeare markedly uses archaic language and Elizabethan English (a form of Modern English). He uses excessive count nouns such as slings, arrows, shocks, whips, scorns, etc. to express a harsh, almost shocking tone. In conjunction with this, he uses a plethora of abstract nouns such as question, fortune, troubles, heartache, dream, respect to encourage introspection. His usage of words such as suffer, to die, troubles, pangs, insolence, dread, heartache, etc. all belong to a semantic field of emotions—negative emotions specifically. This language usage not only sets a tone of desperation and angst, but also evokes emotion from the audience. 

Gorman uses Modern English, but a more contemporary form rather than an archaic version. She, too, aims to evoke emotion in her audience, but that of hope rather despair—unlike Shakespeare. She employs count nouns in the form of notions, norms, slaves, etc. to encompass society’s thoughts and feelings as a whole and encourage togetherness. Her usage of abstract nouns is similarly apparent to Shakespeare’s, though hers are used in a more metaphorical manner. For instance, she refers to shade, sea, dawn, nation, dream, belly, individually as non-literal locations or concepts. While Shakespeare focus on the semantic field of emotion, Gorman focuses on that of humanity. Her usage of girl, mother, president, slaves, man, children, American, all fall under the umbrella of person, or a being. This usage of language creates a form of togetherness. Though Gorman is specifying the various types of individuals in our country, she ties them together with the repetitive usage of we: “We the successors of a country and a time” (16). This cohesive language and repetition stress the importance of togetherness, inspiring hope. 

Though both pieces utilize an informal register with contractions, both follow grammar rules for the most part. There are a few bits of non-standard grammatical choices of run-on sentences and punctuation. For instance, Shakespeare employs an uncommon combination of periods with em-dashes, as seen in “And lose the name of action.—Soft you now, The fair Ophelia.—Nymph, in thy orisons” (96-97). His excessive usage of commas connects sentence fragments in an informal manner. Gorman also employs non-standard grammar with her usage of commas to connect sentence fragments in a unique pattern and emphasize thoughts as seen in:

“Let the globe, if nothing else, say this is true,

that even as we grieved, we grew,

that even as we hurt, we hoped,

that even as we tired, we tried,

that we’ll forever be tied together, victorious.” (36-40).

Though hundreds of years, race, gender, and an ocean separate Shakespeare and Amanda Gorman, both authors employ similar components of language to express thoughts in an artful manner and provoke their audience to contemplate life in a deeper manner. Shakespeare’s provocation is notably bleaker, whereas Gorman’s is that of optimism, but both use language skillfully to conjure such emotion.

3.1 Intended Message

The aforementioned updates to Shakespeare’s piece would better target the same modern audience as Gorman’s. Though Shakespeare’s syntax and idiom usage was in line for his own Elizabethan audience, the message feels antiquated for a contemporary audience. This new rephrasing feels more streamlined, less confusing, and more straight-forward. The intended message is still kept intact: Hamlet is contemplating suicide—weighing the pros and cons while questioning what awaits him after death. However, the updated idioms and syntax clarify the message immediately, rather than forcing the audience to think critically about the message and translate certain archaic phrases. The revision allows for a quicker reading and understanding, and ultimately holds more weight since the impact is immediate. 

3.2 Recommendations to Align with Standard Language & Linguistic Principles

To better reach a contemporary audience and better align with standard language and linguistic principles, certain clitics and words in Hamlet would need to be updated. Though Shakespeare uses informal English with contractions—just as Gorman does in “The Hill We Climb”—his chosen proclitics are not in line with modern day English. For instance, the proclitic‘tis is more commonly accepted as the enclitic it’s to shorten it is. Certain contractions such as th’ are not commonly used at all and should be written fully as the instead. These are not grammatically incorrect, but rather uncommon in terms of modern language usage. Shakespeare also uses a plethora of archaic words such as quietus, bodkin, fardels. Alone, the words might simply seem old-fashioned, but together they create a puzzle for the modern reader to interpret: “When he himself might his quietus make / With a bare bodkin? Who would fardels bear” (Shakespeare 83-83). Both bodkin and fardels are from Middle English, with usage weaning tremendously over the years (Bodkin). Quietus is the most recent of the three words—still considered in use—but still archaic compared to modern synonyms. More modernly understood counterparts would need to replace these terms for ease of understanding. These changes would sacrifice the poetic, worldly feel of Shakespeare’s writing, but would better suit the modern American population that Gorman targets.

3.3 Contrast of Language Elements Due to the Different Time Periods

The same year Hamlet was published—in 1603—Queen Elizabeth of the prominent Elizabethan Era died. Hamlet’s life or death soliloquy was likely popularly accepted due to the nation’s own acceptance of their ruler’s death. England historically was also ravaged by a plague—The Black Death—which had fluctuating outbreaks between the 14thand 19th centuries. Death was a household topic and fear, and Shakespeare’s Hamlet openly questioned the purpose of living versus dying, and sparked conversations about what happens in the afterlife.

Though both pieces are understood by a contemporary audience, the initial target audience varies. Shakespeare’s Hamlet was originally published in 1603, meant to target a theater audience—upper middle class to the rich, and mostly white males—of England (Who). Shakespeare likely uses an informal style of writing to allow the audience to feel closer to the play happenings. In Hamlet’s soliloquy specifically, the style even wavers more towards the intimate side, likely in an attempt to evoke emotion and inspire the audience’s own introspection. Despite both the intimate and informal nature of Shakespeare’s writing, he utilizes a sophisticated, poetic style of writing that illustrates his rare education and literacy. In fact, “Most of the population of Europe between the fourth and the eighteenth centuries was unable to read or write in any language,” (Sanders). This likely contributes to why Shakespeare chose to entertain through playwriting and theater—to target a greater population than just the literate. His work was available to view and hear, rather than just be read. However, only those who could afford the entertainment—upper middle class and beyond—were privy to his works initially.

Almost four-hundred years later, “The Hill We Climb” was published in 2021 by Amanda Gorman. The poem was recited to the entire American population—the entire world—amidst a global pandemic and on the tail-end of heightened racial conflict and racially-driven police brutality. Lines such as “where can we find light in this never-ending shade?” allude to American society looking for positivity among the emotionally and physically draining toll of the COVID-19 pandemic (Gorman 2). Lines such as “We’ve learned that quiet isn’t always peace,” reflects on racial turmoil and injustices that alighted during 2020 protests—notably the protests following George Floyd—and how the American people are no longer staying silent in the face of injustice (Gorman 6).

Her target audience is much wider, targeting many various types of people. Considering almost seventy-four percent of households—or 121 million homes—have televisions in America (Stoll), that gives Gorman an incredibly large reach (not including the other countries who viewed or read her work). She uses an informal register to appeal to the majority of English-speaking citizens, without swaying too heavily towards advanced language or regionally specific dialect or slang. Similarly, Gorman utilizes an informal register to reach the widest possible audience, though referencing “Americans” specifically throughout the poem as they are her intended audience. While Shakespeare writes mostly in iambic pentameter and verse, Gorman writes in free verse—though there is no deigned structure, there is often a rhythmic feel.

3.4 Possible Environmental, Historical & Cultural Factors of the Time Period

Many environmental, historical, and cultural factors contribute to both Shakespeare’s and Gorman’s works. For Shakespeare, in the late 1500s to the early 1600s, playwriting and theater blossomed in England. In fact, the Elizabethan Era is often referred to as the Elizabethan Theatre Era—or the English Renaissance as it’s properly known. It’s a time when playwriting became widespread in order to “express the complexities of contemporary identities” (Aebischer). Shakespeare was also influenced by Elizabeth’s reign in the face of an outwardly patriarchal society, as well as widespread Catholicism which influenced many of the religious undertones. This new entertainment outlet combined with the social and political pressures of the time influenced Shakespeare to explore the intricacies of humanity and ask controversial questions such as, “to be or not to be” regarding the contemplation of life and suicide, and what it could mean on a deeper level.

Gorman was similarly influenced by environmental, historical, and cultural factors. “The Hill We Climb” is highly political in the sense that it speaks of democracy and the presidency—quite literally spoken to the president and American people during the inauguration. Lines such as “where a skinny Black girl / descended from slaves and raised by a single mother” highlight influences from America’s history of slavery and oppression, as well as Gorman’s own personal environment (Gorman 17-18). Following the third and fourth waves of feminism, Gorman’s words hold more impact, as women were previously oppressed and not likely to be found reciting at a presidential inauguration. Gorman standing before the nation—as a Black female American—following heighted racial and gender protests, signifies the beginning of a new America and offers a promise to the people in itself. Lines such as, “We are striving to forge a union with purpose, / to compose a country committed to all cultures, colors, / characters and /conditions of man” reflect on the recent racial, cultural, and political turmoil of modern America such as the George Floyd protests, the recent attacks on Asian Americans during the COVID-19 pandemic, and more (Gorman 24-27). Gorman’s poem speaks about forging a new, better future regardless of race or color, which refer not only to historically oppressed citizens, but modern cultural oppression that is prevalent in the country. Her call to action is inspired by her observations of the people in the nation, as well as a call to do better than previous presidencies and generations.

3.5 Influences of These Factors on the Language Usage in the Two Selections

Shakespeare was a prominent playwright of his time, so influential in fact, that many of his works have persisted over four-hundred years into modern times. He was known to coin terms, such as “there’s the rub” which likely influenced the modern-day versions of the idiom such as “what’s the catch?” (73). He was also known to add suffixes to words, creating new derivatives. He also commonly changed the form of words to coin new terms—using nouns as verbs, verbs as adjectives, so on so forth to create new usages for previously defined words (Macrone). This was a necessity in order to better express the complexities of the human mind and experience; Shakespeare created phrases, idioms, and terms to describe ideas that previously weren’t expressed fluently or efficiently. As a product intended for theater, his writing is often dramatic. This dramatization is expressed through extremes and binaries such as “to be or not to be” (64) or love/hate, life/death, etc. 

Amanda Gorman’s usage of first-person and repetition of “we” is likely influenced by the American political state and its history, just as Shakespeare’s writing was influenced by European politics at the time. The United States Constitution starts with “we the People,” while Gorman’s poem starts off with “when day comes we ask ourselves” (1). These parallels of “we” are likely purposeful, to emphasize the importance of the American people sticking together as one. Metaphors such as “we’ve braved the belly of the beast” are kept simple to impact people of all backgrounds and educations (5). Her language is extremely straightforward which is effective for relaying such a passionate, complex message to as many people as possible, without alienating people of certain economical or educational standing. Though it’s in an informal register, it is still recited with annunciation and emphasis in a poetic flow to appeal to the more sophisticated audience—the president and government. By keeping her syntax rudimentary, dialect neutral, and speech proper, she targets both the undereducated listeners and the leaders of the nation, while appealing to everyone in between.

Works Cited

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“American Dream.” Index, www.etymonline.com/word/american+dream.

“Bodkin, n.” OED Online, Oxford University Press, June 2021, www.oed.com/view/Entry/20925. Accessed 29 July 2021.

“Catch (v.).” Index, www.etymonline.com/word/catch. 

Denham, Kristin. Linguistics for Everyone: An Introduction Second Edition. United States: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2012.

Gorman, Amanda (2021). The hill we climb: an inaugural poem for the country. Viking, an imprint of Penguin Random House LLC.

Macrone, Michael. “‘Household Words’: Common and Uncommon Words Coined by Shakespeare, Part II.” Shakespeare Oxford Newsletter, vol. 39, no. 2, Mar. 2003. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/login.aspx?direc....

OED. OED Online. n.d. 13 July 2021.

Sanders, Eve Rachelle, and Margaret W. Ferguson. “Literacies in Early Modern England.” Critical Survey, vol. 14, no. 1, Jan. 2002, p. 1. EBSCOhost, doi:10.3167/001115702782352169.

Shakespeare, William. Hamlet from The Folger Shakespeare. Ed. Barbara Mowat, Paul Werstine, Michael Poston, and Rebecca Niles. Folger Shakespeare Library, July 9, 2021. https://shakespeare.folger.edu/shakespeares-works/hamlet/act-3-scene-1/

“So Long (Interj.).” Index, www.etymonline.com/word/so%20long. 

Stoll, Julia. “TV Households in U.S.” Statista, 13 July 2021, www.statista.com/statistics/243789/nu.... 

“Who Were These People? Audiences in Shakespeare’s Day.” Seattle Shakespeare Company, 23 Jan. 2018, www.seattleshakespeare.org/who-were-t....

“Word Origin of ‘Dream’.” Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster, www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play.... 

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