In the third century, significant shifts occurred beyond Rome’s borders. In Germany, tribal groups began merging into larger confederations like the Alamanni, who posed a serious threat along the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Beyond the Danube, a new enemy emerged: the Goths, a coalition of tribes migrating from the north alongside those already living on the open plains of Europe. Raids on Roman cities became more frequent, and piracy resurfaced in the Mediterranean after a long absence.

A major change also occurred in Persia, where the Sasanian Empire overthrew the Parthians, creating a centralized and militarily powerful state that became a formidable adversary for Rome in the East.

These external threats were compounded by internal instability. Emperors were frequently overthrown, and military coups became common. Meanwhile, the Gallic Empire in the West and the Palmyrene Empire in the East declared independence, fracturing Rome’s control over its territories. Forced to abandon difficult-to-defend regions, such as the Agri Decumates (modern southwestern Germany) and Dacia (modern Romania), the empire struggled to maintain its borders and concentrated on strengthening its core defenses.

As the world changed, so did the Roman army. The empire shifted from an expansionist approach typical of the first and second centuries to a more defensive stance in the third, setting the stage for military reforms that would culminate in the fourth century.

Previously, legions were stationed along high-risk borders. By the third century, however, every frontier was vulnerable, and Rome had no reserve forces within the empire to counter sudden attacks. In response, the leadership established a more flexible, mobile force. Instead of moving entire legions, smaller units, or vexillationes, were quickly deployed to trouble spots, while stable, smaller units remained stationed at fortresses.

Another major shift was the growing importance of cavalry. Separated from the legions to operate independently, cavalry units increased nearly sixfold. These highly mobile units could detach as vexillationes to support armies across the empire, providing Rome with a faster response to threats.

The Legend of Valentine opens during the reign of Emperor Gallienus, who made significant changes that would transform the Roman command structure. Previously, command of legions was reserved for the senatorial class, while the equestrian class (equites) led cavalry and auxiliary units, often including non-Roman soldiers. This equestrian class, comparable to today’s wealthy business and managerial elite, gained influence as their generals became more experienced and respected.

In a surprising move, Emperor Gallienus decreed that legions would no longer be commanded by senatorial officials (legatus legionis) but by equestrian officers (praefectus legionis), marking the end of senators in military command roles. This shift prioritized experience over social rank and helped to professionalize the army.

The Roman army’s structure evolved in response to new threats, with significant changes to weapons and armor. By the fourth and fifth centuries, Roman soldiers would resemble medieval knights more than the classical legionnaires of earlier Rome.

Battle tactics also adapted. In the third century, Roman soldiers fought in tight formations using long spears for thrusting. The javelin (pilum) remained in use but was no longer the primary weapon. After the initial clash, soldiers drew their spatha, a longer sword than the traditional gladius, and protected themselves with large oval shields (scutum).

Armor design changed, too. The iconic plate armor, lorica segmentata, common in previous centuries, was replaced by chain mail (lorica hamata) and scale armor (lorica squamata) by the end of the third century. Rome’s elite heavy cavalry, known as cataphracts, adopted similar full-body scale or lamellar armor to match the heavily armored Sasanian cavalry.

In The Legend of Valentine, Collins brilliantly uses Valentine and the cast of characters to explore and reflect the sweeping transformations of the Roman Empire in the third century. Much like a vivid portrayal of the era itself, the novel captures the deep tensions, shifting loyalties, and existential struggles of a world on the brink of change. Through Valentine’s journey, readers are invited to experience the strain of an empire facing relentless threats, internal fractures, and evolving military strategies.

Collins’ characters embody the very issues that defined the era, from the weight of political instability to the personal toll of an empire struggling to redefine itself. Valentine’s courage and loyalty are tested by the same forces that reshaped Rome: the rising importance of cavalry, the changing command structure, and the constant threat to the borders. This layered storytelling makes The Legend of Valentine not just a historical novel but a remarkable reflection on the resilience needed to endure such turbulent times.

In Valentine’s world, love and faith emerge as counterpoints to violence and betrayal, helping him navigate a path forward in a chaotic landscape. By weaving these universal themes into the lives of his characters, Collins creates a vivid and multifaceted homage to third-century Rome—a setting that is rarely depicted, given the difficulty of capturing it accurately. Through his thoughtful narrative, Collins brings to life the human side of an empire in turmoil, making The Legend of Valentine a story that continues to resonate through its compelling historical realism.

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