When Bertrand Russell wrote The Problems of Philosophy in 1912, he grappled with the gap between appearance and reality, asking how we can know anything with certainty when our senses may deceive us. Russell’s skepticism presumed that underlying truth existed and could be approached through rigorous inquiry. Over a century later, his questions have not merely persisted—they have proliferated into new domains of epistemic risk. Artificial intelligence does not simply introduce fresh uncer...