1. Dispute Between a Man and His Ba (Unknown, XXII–XXI BC)
Also known as The Debate Between a Man and his Soul. One of the oldest texts addressing suicide. Phrases like “I opened my mouth to my Ba” echo Biblical expressions about dialogue with the heart.

2. Atra-Hasis (Anonymous, XVIII BC; prehistory in XXIII BC Eridu Genesis)
A Sumerian flood story and precursor to the Epic of Gilgamesh, with parallels to the Biblical flood narrative.

3. Epic of Gilgamesh (Anonymous, XXI–XIII BC)
Also Sha naqba īmuru (“He who Saw the Abyss”). Foundational heroic epic influencing Heracles myths and Homeric epics. Themes and elements correlate with the Bible: Garden of Eden, Ecclesiastes, Genesis flood.

4. Ancient Egyptian Literature (John L. Foster)
Harper’s Songs (XX–XVI BC) and The Immortality of Writers (XIII–X BC) reflect the impermanence of life, the need to enjoy it, and show a skeptical view of the afterlife. Likely used for education.

5. Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All (Roland, XVIII–XIII BC)
Descriptions of disasters echo the ten plagues of Egypt (Exodus) and have parallels with Ecclesiastes.

6. Wisdom from the Late Bronze Age (Yoram Cohen)
Šimâ Milka (XX–XVI BC): the son rejects his father’s advice, emphasizing the inevitability of death.
Ballad of Early Rulers (XVIII–XVI BC): even great heroes eventually die; one should enjoy the present, recalling Qohelet.

7. The Babylonian Theodicy (Unknown, XVI–X BC)
A dialogue on the world’s injustice, formally similar to the Book of Job.

8. Ludlul bēl Nēmeqi (Amar Annus, XIII BC)
The Poem of the Righteous Sufferer or “Babylonian Job,” a hymn of thanksgiving to Marduk after recovery from illness.

9. Dialogue of Pessimism (Unknown, X BC)
Arad mitanguranni (“Slave, attend me”). Interpreted as a theodicy, a reflection on life’s absurdity, or social/religious satire. Contains parallels to Ludlul bēl Nēmeqi, Epic of Gilgamesh, and Old Testament books (Ecclesiastes, Job, Proverbs).

10. Bible, Book 18: Job (Anonymous, VII–IV BC)
Explores divine justice. Ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian texts provide parallels, suggesting a long tradition of reflection on suffering.

11. Bible, Book 21: Ecclesiastes (Anonymous, V–III BC)
Wisdom literature offering reflections on life’s meaning, impermanence, and enjoyment. Famous phrases include “eat, drink and be merry,” “nothing new under the sun,” and “vanity of vanities; all is vanity.”