S.W. O'Connell's Blog

The Peer's Challenge

As Paris buzzed with intrigue during the AmericanRevolution, Lord David Murray, the seventh Viscount Stormont, the Britishambassador to Louis XVI's court and chief of intelligence, was at the center ofthis complex web of intrigue. Appointed in 1772, Stormont was a Scottish peerrelated to Lord Mansfield, the chief justice who had ruled against colonialprotests during the Stamp Act crisis of 1765. His diplomatic cover cloakedespionage aimed at blocking French support for the rebelling colonies.

Lord Stormont

Covert Aid

The 1776 Declaration of Independence upped the stakes.George Washington's Continental Army faced severe shortages of weapons, powder,and funds. Franklin's arrival in Paris in December was a game-changer: thePhiladelphian captivated French intellectuals and aristocrats alike. He lobbiedForeign Minister Charles Gravier, the Comte de Vergennes, for more covert aid.Vergennes, estimating the strategic blow to Britain, authorized secretshipments through intermediaries, such as the front company Rodrigue, Hortelez& Cie.

Comte de Vergennes

Unleashing a Master Spy

From his Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré estate, Stormont took thisas a dire threat. His network, funded by Whitehall subsidies and coordinatedwith Loyalist exiles, became Britain’s eyes and ears in a city full of conspiracy.At the core of Stormont's operation was Dr. Edward Bancroft, aMassachusetts-born physician and chemist whose scientific credentials maskedhis duplicity. Recruited in March 1776 by British secret service agent PaulWentworth, a wealthy Loyalist tobacco merchant acting as Stormont's intermediary,Bancroft had infiltrated the American mission.

Edward Bancroft

Placement and Access

Serving as Silas Deane's secretary—the Connecticut merchanttasked with buying munitions—Bancroft gained access to Franklin's villa inPassy, a hub of covert diplomacy. From there, he documented every detail:Vergennes' promises of gunpowder, arms shipments disguised as commercial cargo;the negotiations over loans to fund the American cause. Bancroft’s use ofspycraft was brilliant. He used stain (invisible ink), hidden papers, andpseudonyms.

Silas Deane

Sophisticated Spycraft

He made weekly visits to a “dead drop" in a crevice atthe base of a tree on the south terrace of the Jardin des Tuileries. Stormontdispatched his private secretary, Thomas Jeans, who retrieved these drops underthe cover of darkness. Stormont’s instructions and new requests forintelligence were also left by Jeans, often accompanied by payments of up to£500 annually.

Jardin des Tuileries 

Exquisite Intelligence

By April 1777, asnegotiations between France and America intensified, Bancroft's leaks includedverbatim transcripts of commissioners' minutes and drafts of the 1778 Treaty ofAlliance. One dispatch, smuggling the final version of the treaty, reached KingGeorge III within 48 hours of its signing in Paris, allowing Britain to preparenaval responses.

King George III

Démarcheing the Bourbons

Stormont used this intelligence in heated meetings withVergennes, citing specifics to accuse France of violating the 1776 Treaty ofCommerce and demanding inspections—his démarches spawned hesitation and boughtBritain months of breathing space. 

Signing the Treaty

An Army of Agents

His influence reached the Atlantic ports ofLorient, Brest, and Nantes, which were crucial points for American supplies.Here, a network of embedded agents—dockyard foremen, corrupt customs officials(douaniers), and bribed ship chandlers—monitored rebel privateers such as the USS Reprisal,commanded by the daring American Captain Lambert Wickes.

USS Reprisal

Stormont’s informants tracked illegal exchanges: Americantobacco and indigo were traded for Charleville muskets and gunpowder, which wasrouted through Roderigue Hortalez et Cie.

Actionable Intelligence

In July 1777, Lambert Wickes' squadron escorted a Dutchconvoy loaded with arms past Ushant. Stormont's informers provided intelligencethat led the Royal Navy to intercept the convoy, seizing prizes worth £100,000. Asthe British ambassador, he issued a strong démarche to Versailles. Thispressured Vergennes to issue mild protests against "illegal" sailing. Although enforcement was pro forma,Stromont’s protests delayed France’s full naval involvement until 1778.

Illegal Sailing

French Mole

Meanwhile, spymaster Stormont developed a mole within theForeign Ministry's Archives Section—a junior archivist, possibly bribed with500 louis d'or—who stole dispatches from locked cabinets.

Lord North

Breaking into the Quai d'Orsay's bureaucracy was a masterstroke against the French.  These stolendispatches revealed Franco-American subsidies, as well as overtures to Spain'sCharles III for a Mediterranean diversion against Gibraltar. Stormont forwardedcopies to London via secure couriers, helping Prime Minister Lord North lobbyneutral European nations, such as the Dutch, against Bourbon plans.

Unplugging the Electrician

But no target infuriated Stormont more than Franklin, the"electrician of sedition,” whose charm threatened French neutrality.Intercepts exposed Franklin's secret letters to William Petty, the second Earlof Shelburne, a Whig opposition leader who called the war "madness"in Parliament and secretly provided £10,000 to American agents such as ArthurLee.

Benjamin Franklin

In a slick psychological operation, Stormont leaked"correspondence" accusing Franklin of treasonous dealings—leakingrebel plans to Lord Shelburne for personal gain.These accusations were circulated in London newspapers and Paris coffeehouses,sparking a scandal. 

Lord Shelburne

Angered at the false reports, Shelburne fought a duel withhis purported accuser, Colonel William Fullarton, in Hyde Park, but bothsurvived unscathed. This episode damaged trust within the American delegation,with Deane suspecting Lee of leaks and making French courtiers wary of deeperinvolvement. It also provided the predicate for my fifth novel in the YankeeDoodle Spies series, The Reluctant Spy.

Success and Failure

Lord Stormont’s web of espionage delayed French armsshipments, kept London apprised of secret negotiations, and sowed discord amongboth French and American diplomats. However, Stormont's efforts in Paris could not stopthe momentum of support for America by France, Spain, and the Netherlands.

Admiral d'Estaing

After the treaty of alliance was signed in 1778, Frenchfleets under Admiral d'Estaing sailed for Savannah, shifting the war. Stormont, whoseprotests were ignored, was recalled that June — bringing a great sigh of reliefto Vegennes and Franklin. Although his network dissolved, its efforts hadsustained the British struggle for two more years—a testament to the power ofespionage in the forging of revolution.

The Peer's Postscript

In a final note, Edward Bancroft's treason to America wasnot revealed in 1889 — from Stormont's secret papers—highlighting how Britain’sintelligence secrets were sustained over many decades.

 

 

 Beaumarchais and the  Cause of Liberty

In April 1775, the American colonies had burst into open rebellion against King George III. In the glittering salons of Paris, whispersof liberty mingled with the clink of wine glasses as the nobility watched thewar in America unfold from afar. Some volunteered to join the fight, defyingtheir King Louis XVI's wishes. Most simply read the bulletins andbroadsheets, whispering their support.

Beaumarchais: Clcomaker, Playwright & Spy

But a commoner, a clockmaker and part-time playwright, wasweaving a web that would stretch across the Atlantic and help give birth to anation. Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, a watchmaker turned playwright,was about to help elevate the most significant rebellion of the century.

The Clockmaker

Born in 1732 to a Parisian clockmaker, young Pierre Caronwas no stranger to tinkering. His skillful fingers crafted timepieces so finethey caught the eye of King Louis XV’s court. By his twenties, he had charmedhis way into Versailles, teaching harp to the royal daughters and earning thenoble suffix “de Beaumarchais” through a clever marriage and a talent forreinvention. His skills brought him close to young Louis XVI, an amateur clockmaker.

18th-century Century Clocks were High Tech Gadgets of the Age

The Playwright

But clocks and courtly manners were just the beginning.Beaumarchais had a restless mind, thriving on the stage and in the shadows. His plays, like The Barber of Seville and The Marriage of Figaro, delivered sharp jabs at the aristocracy, earning him both applause and enemies. His plays drew the King's ire and were banned, but later revived as operas by Mozart. By the 1770s, he wore manymasks: dramatist, merchant, and secret agent for the French crown.

Scene from Marriage of Figaro

A Complex Script

But it was in a different kind of play where Beaumarchaistruly found his calling. France, still sore from its defeat in the Seven Years’War, saw a chance to poke Britain in the eye by aiding the American rebels. ButLouis XVI, cautious of open war, needed plausible deniability. Beaumarchais's flairfor drama made him the perfect man to orchestrate a covert operation. 

King Louis XVI

In 1775,he met with American agents in London, including Arthur Lee, a Virginia lawyerwith a fiery patriot’s spirit. Lee’s stories of colonial resolve ignited aspark in Beaumarchais. Here was a cause that blended profit with principle—achance to arm the rebels, weaken Britain, and help rearm France.

The Pitchman

Beaumarchais pitched his plan to Foreign Minister Comte de Vergenneswith the enthusiasm of a man promoting a hit play. “Sire, the Americans needmuskets, powder, and cannon,” he argued. “Let me supply them through a front—atrading company. France stays clean, Britain is caught off guard, and libertywins.” Vergennes, no fool, saw the merit. 

Comte de Vergennes

By 1776, Beaumarchais had createdRoderigue Hortalez & Compagnie, a front (a sort of shell) company thatacted as both merchant house and espionage hub. With a million Livres from theFrench treasury (and another from Spain, persuaded by Beaumarchais’ silvertongue), our playwright got to work.

Secret Script

Imagine a busy office in Paris, clerks scribbling invoices,while in the back room, Beaumarchais haggles with arms dealers and dodgesBritish spies. The operation was a dangerous game. Britain’s spies prowled thedocks, looking for French interference. 

Back-room Scheming and Planning

Beaumarchais wrote coded letters, usedaliases like “Durand,” and spun stories to mislead the enemy. One moment, hewas a merchant shipping “cloth” to the West Indies; the next, he was smugglingmuskets to American privateers. His ships, loaded with 200 cannons, 25,000muskets, and tons of gunpowder, sailed under neutral flags to ports likeSaint-Domingue, where American agents waited.

Stormy Reviews

But the sea was no friend to Beaumarchais. Storms, Britishpatrols, and shoddy captains sank half his cargoes. Worse, the Americans wereslow to pay. Congress, short on cash, sent promissory notes and tobacco insteadof money. 

Stormy Seas, Secret Cargoes

Beaumarchais was under pressure but kept going, driven by a mix ofideals and ambition. His supplies arrived at critical moments for GeneralWashington’s army. At Saratoga in 1777, American troops, armed with Frenchmuskets, crushed General Burgoyne’s redcoats—a victory that convinced France tojoin the war openly. Beaumarchais’ guns had tipped the scales.

The Clock Strikes

Despite his successes, Beaumarchais’ life was a riskybalancing act. His enemies at court, jealous of his influence, whisperedaccusations of treason. His debts piled up as Congress delayed payments. In1777, he faced brief exile after a duel gone wrong but bounced back, ever thesurvivor. His plays kept him in the public eye, their sharp wit echoing his owndefiance. The Marriage of Figaro, banned for its cheek, was a jab at theold order—a nod, perhaps, to the American rebels he admired.

Resetting the Clock

By 1778, France’s formal alliancewith America changed Beaumarchais’s role. His secret trading gave way toofficial French aid. But he kept scheming, running spy operations forVergennes, uncovering British plans, and even outfitted ships for privateeringto harass British trade.  Theseactivities were less about traditional espionage and more about logisticalcoordination to disrupt British supply lines. For instance, Beaumarchais usedhis network to monitor British merchant vessels, enabling privateers to targetthem effectively, which indirectly supported the Allied war effort.

Doctor Franklin

His Paris home became a hub forAmerican envoys like Silas Deane and Benjamin Franklin, who valued his charmand connections. Franklin, in his fur cap and with a sly grin, calledBeaumarchais “a genius in his way,” though he joked about Beaumarchais’ endlessrequests for repayment.

Winding Down

By 1779, his focus increasinglyshifted to settling financial disputes with the Continental Congress overunpaid debts for earlier covert aid, decreasing his role inintelligence-gathering. The war’s end in 1783 didn’t bring peace forBeaumarchais. Congress owed millions, but American funds were limited. He spentyears chasing debts, with his wealth shrinking.

Peace celebrated in Paris

The Clock Strikes Midnight

When the French Revolution brokeout in 1789, Beaumarchais supported its ideals but recoiled at its violence.Accused of hoarding arms, he fled to Germany, returning only afterRobespierre’s fall. He died in 1799, his life a whirlwind of victories and setbacks.

Storming the Bastille Launched the Revolution

Curtain Call

Beaumarchais saw America’s fightas a reflection of his own struggles against privilege and authority. His playsmocked the nobility; his guns supported the rebels. He was a man full ofcontradictions—a courtier who despised tyranny, a profiteer risking everythingfor a cause.

 Beaumarchais and the  Cause of Liberty

In April 1775, the American colonies had burst into open rebellion against King George III. In the glittering salons of Paris, whispersof liberty mingled with the clink of wine glasses as the nobility watched thewar in America unfold from afar. Some volunteered to join the fight, defyingtheir King Louis XVI's wishes. Most simply read the bulletins andbroadsheets, whispering their support.

Beaumarchais: Clcomaker, Playwright & Spy

But a commoner, a clockmaker and part-time playwright, wasweaving a web that would stretch across the Atlantic and help give birth to anation. Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, a watchmaker turned playwright,was about to help elevate the most significant rebellion of the century.

The Clockmaker

Born in 1732 to a Parisian clockmaker, young Pierre Caronwas no stranger to tinkering. His skillful fingers crafted timepieces so finethey caught the eye of King Louis XV’s court. By his twenties, he had charmedhis way into Versailles, teaching harp to the royal daughters and earning thenoble suffix “de Beaumarchais” through a clever marriage and a talent forreinvention. His skills brought him close to young Louis XVI, an amateur clockmaker.

18th-century Century Clocks were High Tech Gadgets of the Age

The Playwright

But clocks and courtly manners were just the beginning.Beaumarchais had a restless mind, thriving on the stage and in the shadows. His plays, like The Barber of Seville and The Marriage of Figaro, delivered sharp jabs at the aristocracy, earning him both applause and enemies. His plays drew the King's ire and were banned, but later revived as operas by Mozart. By the 1770s, he wore manymasks: dramatist, merchant, and secret agent for the French crown.

Scene from Marriage of Figaro

A Complex Script

But it was in a different kind of play where Beaumarchaistruly found his calling. France, still sore from its defeat in the Seven Years’War, saw a chance to poke Britain in the eye by aiding the American rebels. ButLouis XVI, cautious of open war, needed plausible deniability. Beaumarchais's flairfor drama made him the perfect man to orchestrate a covert operation. 

King Louis XVI

In 1775,he met with American agents in London, including Arthur Lee, a Virginia lawyerwith a fiery patriot’s spirit. Lee’s stories of colonial resolve ignited aspark in Beaumarchais. Here was a cause that blended profit with principle—achance to arm the rebels, weaken Britain, and help rearm France.

The Pitchman

Beaumarchais pitched his plan to Foreign Minister Comte de Vergenneswith the enthusiasm of a man promoting a hit play. “Sire, the Americans needmuskets, powder, and cannon,” he argued. “Let me supply them through a front—atrading company. France stays clean, Britain is caught off guard, and libertywins.” Vergennes, no fool, saw the merit. 

Comte de Vergennes

By 1776, Beaumarchais had createdRoderigue Hortalez & Compagnie, a front (a sort of shell) company thatacted as both merchant house and espionage hub. With a million Livres from theFrench treasury (and another from Spain, persuaded by Beaumarchais’ silvertongue), our playwright got to work.

Secret Script

Imagine a busy office in Paris, clerks scribbling invoices,while in the back room, Beaumarchais haggles with arms dealers and dodgesBritish spies. The operation was a dangerous game. Britain’s spies prowled thedocks, looking for French interference. 

Back-room Scheming and Planning

Beaumarchais wrote coded letters, usedaliases like “Durand,” and spun stories to mislead the enemy. One moment, hewas a merchant shipping “cloth” to the West Indies; the next, he was smugglingmuskets to American privateers. His ships, loaded with 200 cannons, 25,000muskets, and tons of gunpowder, sailed under neutral flags to ports likeSaint-Domingue, where American agents waited.

Stormy Reviews

But the sea was no friend to Beaumarchais. Storms, Britishpatrols, and shoddy captains sank half his cargoes. Worse, the Americans wereslow to pay. Congress, short on cash, sent promissory notes and tobacco insteadof money. 

Stormy Seas, Secret Cargoes

Beaumarchais was under pressure but kept going, driven by a mix ofideals and ambition. His supplies arrived at critical moments for GeneralWashington’s army. At Saratoga in 1777, American troops, armed with Frenchmuskets, crushed General Burgoyne’s redcoats—a victory that convinced France tojoin the war openly. Beaumarchais’ guns had tipped the scales.

The Clock Strikes

Despite his successes, Beaumarchais’ life was a riskybalancing act. His enemies at court, jealous of his influence, whisperedaccusations of treason. His debts piled up as Congress delayed payments. In1777, he faced brief exile after a duel gone wrong but bounced back, ever thesurvivor. His plays kept him in the public eye, their sharp wit echoing his owndefiance. The Marriage of Figaro, banned for its cheek, was a jab at theold order—a nod, perhaps, to the American rebels he admired.

Resetting the Clock

By 1778, France’s formal alliancewith America changed Beaumarchais’s role. His secret trading gave way toofficial French aid. But he kept scheming, running spy operations forVergennes, uncovering British plans, and even outfitted ships for privateeringto harass British trade.  Theseactivities were less about traditional espionage and more about logisticalcoordination to disrupt British supply lines. For instance, Beaumarchais usedhis network to monitor British merchant vessels, enabling privateers to targetthem effectively, which indirectly supported the Allied war effort.

Doctor Franklin

His Paris home became a hub forAmerican envoys like Silas Deane and Benjamin Franklin, who valued his charmand connections. Franklin, in his fur cap and with a sly grin, calledBeaumarchais “a genius in his way,” though he joked about Beaumarchais’ endlessrequests for repayment.

Winding Down

By 1779, his focus increasinglyshifted to settling financial disputes with the Continental Congress overunpaid debts for earlier covert aid, decreasing his role inintelligence-gathering. The war’s end in 1783 didn’t bring peace forBeaumarchais. Congress owed millions, but American funds were limited. He spentyears chasing debts, with his wealth shrinking.

Peace celebrated in Paris

The Clock Strikes Midnight

When the French Revolution brokeout in 1789, Beaumarchais supported its ideals but recoiled at its violence.Accused of hoarding arms, he fled to Germany, returning only afterRobespierre’s fall. He died in 1799, his life a whirlwind of victories and setbacks.

Storming the Bastille Launched the Revolution

Curtain Call

Beaumarchais saw America’s fightas a reflection of his own struggles against privilege and authority. His playsmocked the nobility; his guns supported the rebels. He was a man full ofcontradictions—a courtier who despised tyranny, a profiteer risking everythingfor a cause.

 Game of Secrets

Paris, December 1776. The air was crisp with winter’s chill, and the Tuileries Gardens lay shadowed, their neat paths empty except for a single figure moving purposefully. Edward Bancroft, a doctor, scientist, and man of letters, slipped through the darkness, his breath fogging in the cold. In his coat pocket, a rolled letter to “Mr. Richards” rested, its ink written in a special code only the right eyes could decipher. To the world, Bancroft seemed to be a loyal American, a trusted aide to Benjamin Franklin. Still, tonight, as he approached a twisted box tree and slipped his message into a hollow, he played a different role: a spy for King George III.

Tuileries Gardens

New England Student

Born in Westfield, Massachusetts, in 1744, Edward Bancroft moved to Connecticut with his widowed mother after she remarried David Bull. There he was tutored by none other than Silas Deane, the schoolteacher who would become our Deane of Spires—America’s agent in Paris.

Home in 18th-century Massachusetts

Fake Physician

Young Bancroft was a quick study,but he was restless. At sixteen, he gave up an apprenticeship with a doctor in Killingworth to seek adventure in Dutch Guiana or Suriname. There, he assumedthe mantle of a physician, treating plantation workers while pursuing his studyof the natural world. A fateful acquaintance was made when Paul Wentworth, awealthy plantation owner, hired Bancroft to survey his land. While there,Bancroft penned a semi-biographical novel as a homage to his employer, detailingthe life of a planter.

Surinam: Dutch Guiana 

Celebrated Scientist

He made his way to London, where in 1769, his Essay on the Natural History of Guiana earned him recognition. He began calling himself “Doctor,” despite having no formal degree. He made the rounds in coffeehouses and intellectual salons, where he met Doctor Benjamin Franklin, the American colonial representative in London. Franklin recognized potential in Bancroft’s wit and worldly charm, and they soon became close friends. As the colonies moved down the road to rebellion, Bancroft’s pro-American writings—like his 1769 Remarks on the Review of the Controversy between Great Britain and Her Colonies—enhanced his patriot bona fides. 

Ben Franklin: Mentor and Mark?

Family Man

In 1771, Cupid’s arrow struck,and Bancroft married young Penelope Fellows, daughter of a prominent Catholicfamily. Ironic as Bancroft was, at best, a Deist. A son, Edward, was born in1772, and the couple went on to have six more children.

Loyal Secretary

In 1776, Silas Deane arrived in Paris to seek French aid, as Congress’s representative (using a cover), he tapped his former student to help. Franklin, now an American commissioner, soon arrived, appointing his London acquaintance as secretary to the American delegation. To Deane and Franklin, Bancroft was a trusted employee, copying letters, translating dispatches, and organizing supplies for American ships. But beneath this front, a darker loyalty simmered—Bancroft was, in actuality, now a mole.

Silas Deane

What Went Wrong?

Before Bancroft left London for France,Paul Wentworth, now a recently recruited agent of the British Secret Service who ran a spy ring, approached him. Wentworth was an American-born loyalist who ran a British spy ring and had employed Bancroft when they were both living in Dutch Guiana. A meetingwas arranged with William Eden, the head of the Secret Service, and a deal was struck. For $ 200 a year—later increased to $500, then $1,000—Bancroft agreed tobetray his fellow Americans. 

William Eden

His motives were a mix of loyaltyto the British Empire, financial ambition, and doubt about the chances of Americanindependence. Believing that the colonies’ best future was within the Empire,he began a life in the shadows, engaging in a risky game—secretly passinginformation to the British while working for Franklin and Deane. In the spyparlance, he had perfect placement and access.

Dead Drops in the Dead of Night

On Tuesday nights, Bancroft carried out his secret routine. Using the alias “Edward Edwards,” he penned reports to a “Mr. Richards,” using invisible ink while cleverly disguising his intelligence reports within stories of romantic escapades. Details about American negotiations with France, troop movements, and Franklin’s personal thoughts would be slipped into a bottle, tied with a string, and hidden in a hollow in a Tuileries tree after 9:30 p.m. When Bancroft cleared the area (departed), a British agent from the embassy would make the pickup, leaving new orders, which Bancroft would gather later that night. America’s secrets were in the hands of William Eden and King George III just two days later.

George III 
Suspicious Colleague

Yet Bancroft’s game was filled with danger: Arthur Lee, an American diplomat, suspected betrayal. Of course, the prickly Virginian suspected everyone! Lee saw Bancroft’s stock speculations and rumored mistress as a red flag.  He warned Franklin and Congress in 1778, claiming there was evidence of Bancroft’s treachery. “I consider Dr. Bancroft a Criminal concerning the United States,” Lee wrote. But he had no proof. Franklin remained loyal to his friend and dismissed them. 

Arthur Lee

Sly Deception

Bancroft caught wind of these accusations and warned his friends. To avoid suspicion, the British staged a fake arrest of Bancroft, accusing him of aiding the rebels—a ruse that kept his cover intact. Lee’s warnings diminished, and Bancroft’s deception remained hidden.

Astounding Success

Bancroft’s actions were remarkable. He translated the commission’s correspondence, repaired American ships, and even advised John Paul Jones, all while passing secrets to London. In 1781, he stole Deane’s private letters, which revealed despair over America’s prospects and called for peace with Britain. Published in New York after Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, the stolen letters damaged Deane’s reputation, calling him a traitor. 

John Paul Jones

Post War Laurels

After the war ended, Bancroft’s reputation continued to grow. In 1783, he moved to England to secure his British pension, while continuing to correspond with Franklin. Bancroft’s scientific work thrived; his 1794 book, Experimental Researches Concerning the Philosophy of Permanent Colors. This earned him a fellowship at the Royal Society, and his patents for quercitron dye made him a wealthy man. Our secretary, double and triple agent, moleand scientist, died on 7 September 1821, at Addington Place in Margate.

Edward Bancroft

A Riddle

Was Bancroft a traitor to America or a patriot to Britain? The question hangs like fog over the Tuileries. Some historians suggest he was a British loyalist who truly believed in the Empire’s unity. Bancroft’s betrayal, though daring, did not destroy the American cause. Ironically, his intelligence, though detailed, often went unused by the British, who did not utilize his reports effectively. Why not? Did they suspect him of being a triple agent? Some speculate Franklin knew of his duplicity but let him operate under the adage of keeping friends close and enemies closer. 

A Spy at Work?

And an Enigma

Whatever the truth, his espionage activities remained hidden until 1891, when British archives revealed his treachery, shocking historians and damaging his legacy. Regardless of who he betrayed, Bancroft’s spying, though daring, did not destroy the American cause. That might just provide our answer—or not. Such is the dilemma of traversing the wilderness of mirrors.

 Game of Secrets

Paris, December 1776. The air was crisp with winter’s chill, and the Tuileries Gardens lay shadowed, their neat paths empty except for a single figure moving purposefully. Edward Bancroft, a doctor, scientist, and man of letters, slipped through the darkness, his breath fogging in the cold. In his coat pocket, a rolled letter to “Mr. Richards” rested, its ink written in a special code only the right eyes could decipher. To the world, Bancroft seemed to be a loyal American, a trusted aide to Benjamin Franklin. Still, tonight, as he approached a twisted box tree and slipped his message into a hollow, he played a different role: a spy for King George III.

Tuileries Gardens

New England Student

Born in Westfield, Massachusetts, in 1744, Edward Bancroft moved to Connecticut with his widowed mother after she remarried David Bull. There he was tutored by none other than Silas Deane, the schoolteacher who would become our Deane of Spires—America’s agent in Paris.

Home in 18th-century Massachusetts

Fake Physician

Young Bancroft was a quick study,but he was restless. At sixteen, he gave up an apprenticeship with a doctor in Killingworth to seek adventure in Dutch Guiana or Suriname. There, he assumedthe mantle of a physician, treating plantation workers while pursuing his studyof the natural world. A fateful acquaintance was made when Paul Wentworth, awealthy plantation owner, hired Bancroft to survey his land. While there,Bancroft penned a semi-biographical novel as a homage to his employer, detailingthe life of a planter.

Surinam: Dutch Guiana 

Celebrated Scientist

He made his way to London, where in 1769, his Essay on the Natural History of Guiana earned him recognition. He began calling himself “Doctor,” despite having no formal degree. He made the rounds in coffeehouses and intellectual salons, where he met Doctor Benjamin Franklin, the American colonial representative in London. Franklin recognized potential in Bancroft’s wit and worldly charm, and they soon became close friends. As the colonies moved down the road to rebellion, Bancroft’s pro-American writings—like his 1769 Remarks on the Review of the Controversy between Great Britain and Her Colonies—enhanced his patriot bona fides. 

Ben Franklin: Mentor and Mark?

Family Man

In 1771, Cupid’s arrow struck,and Bancroft married young Penelope Fellows, daughter of a prominent Catholicfamily. Ironic as Bancroft was, at best, a Deist. A son, Edward, was born in1772, and the couple went on to have six more children.

Loyal Secretary

In 1776, Silas Deane arrived in Paris to seek French aid, as Congress’s representative (using a cover), he tapped his former student to help. Franklin, now an American commissioner, soon arrived, appointing his London acquaintance as secretary to the American delegation. To Deane and Franklin, Bancroft was a trusted employee, copying letters, translating dispatches, and organizing supplies for American ships. But beneath this front, a darker loyalty simmered—Bancroft was, in actuality, now a mole.

Silas Deane

What Went Wrong?

Before Bancroft left London for France,Paul Wentworth, now a recently recruited agent of the British Secret Service who ran a spy ring, approached him. Wentworth was an American-born loyalist who ran a British spy ring and had employed Bancroft when they were both living in Dutch Guiana. A meetingwas arranged with William Eden, the head of the Secret Service, and a deal was struck. For $ 200 a year—later increased to $500, then $1,000—Bancroft agreed tobetray his fellow Americans. 

William Eden

His motives were a mix of loyaltyto the British Empire, financial ambition, and doubt about the chances of Americanindependence. Believing that the colonies’ best future was within the Empire,he began a life in the shadows, engaging in a risky game—secretly passinginformation to the British while working for Franklin and Deane. In the spyparlance, he had perfect placement and access.

Dead Drops in the Dead of Night

On Tuesday nights, Bancroft carried out his secret routine. Using the alias “Edward Edwards,” he penned reports to a “Mr. Richards,” using invisible ink while cleverly disguising his intelligence reports within stories of romantic escapades. Details about American negotiations with France, troop movements, and Franklin’s personal thoughts would be slipped into a bottle, tied with a string, and hidden in a hollow in a Tuileries tree after 9:30 p.m. When Bancroft cleared the area (departed), a British agent from the embassy would make the pickup, leaving new orders, which Bancroft would gather later that night. America’s secrets were in the hands of William Eden and King George III just two days later.

George III 
Suspicious Colleague

Yet Bancroft’s game was filled with danger: Arthur Lee, an American diplomat, suspected betrayal. Of course, the prickly Virginian suspected everyone! Lee saw Bancroft’s stock speculations and rumored mistress as a red flag.  He warned Franklin and Congress in 1778, claiming there was evidence of Bancroft’s treachery. “I consider Dr. Bancroft a Criminal concerning the United States,” Lee wrote. But he had no proof. Franklin remained loyal to his friend and dismissed them. 

Arthur Lee

Sly Deception

Bancroft caught wind of these accusations and warned his friends. To avoid suspicion, the British staged a fake arrest of Bancroft, accusing him of aiding the rebels—a ruse that kept his cover intact. Lee’s warnings diminished, and Bancroft’s deception remained hidden.

Astounding Success

Bancroft’s actions were remarkable. He translated the commission’s correspondence, repaired American ships, and even advised John Paul Jones, all while passing secrets to London. In 1781, he stole Deane’s private letters, which revealed despair over America’s prospects and called for peace with Britain. Published in New York after Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, the stolen letters damaged Deane’s reputation, calling him a traitor. 

John Paul Jones

Post War Laurels

After the war ended, Bancroft’s reputation continued to grow. In 1783, he moved to England to secure his British pension, while continuing to correspond with Franklin. Bancroft’s scientific work thrived; his 1794 book, Experimental Researches Concerning the Philosophy of Permanent Colors. This earned him a fellowship at the Royal Society, and his patents for quercitron dye made him a wealthy man. Our secretary, double and triple agent, moleand scientist, died on 7 September 1821, at Addington Place in Margate.

Edward Bancroft

A Riddle

Was Bancroft a traitor to America or a patriot to Britain? The question hangs like fog over the Tuileries. Some historians suggest he was a British loyalist who truly believed in the Empire’s unity. Bancroft’s betrayal, though daring, did not destroy the American cause. Ironically, his intelligence, though detailed, often went unused by the British, who did not utilize his reports effectively. Why not? Did they suspect him of being a triple agent? Some speculate Franklin knew of his duplicity but let him operate under the adage of keeping friends close and enemies closer. 

A Spy at Work?

And an Enigma

Whatever the truth, his espionage activities remained hidden until 1891, when British archives revealed his treachery, shocking historians and damaging his legacy. Regardless of who he betrayed, Bancroft’s spying, though daring, did not destroy the American cause. That might just provide our answer—or not. Such is the dilemma of traversing the wilderness of mirrors.

City of Lights

July 1776. The Seine shone under a summer moon, its ripples hiding secrets as Silas Deane stepped onto the cobblestones of Place Louis XV. He looked back to see if he was being followed. Not this time. The Connecticut merchant-turned-diplomat, Deane’s role was crucial to the young rebellion—securing badly needed aid from France. Although not a polished diplomat, the Yankee trader, a skilled negotiator, was up against a city full of spies and schemers. He would have to wage a secret war for America’s survival, with betrayal waiting at every turn. Though only a passing figure in my novel, The Reluctant Spy, it’s important to understand Deane’s role, as he set the stage for much that followed.

Paris: a Maze of Intrigue

Young Yankee

Who would have thought a young Connecticut Yankee would be drawn into the world of global espionage? Silas Deane was born in Groton in 1737. Fortunate enough to attend Yale, he eschewed the typical graduate’s career as a cleric, schoolmaster, or lawyer. Connecticut’s access to the sea and its favorable rivers made it a hub of trade, and Dean earned a fortune in trading timber and rum. As with all of his class and status, Deane was drawn into politics as the colonies slid toward revolution and was a stalwart member of the Continental Congress. His talent got him named America’s first envoy to France during the early days of the struggle. America needed everything: money, supplies, weapons, and munitions. And America needed them quickly. Armed only with a letter of introduction and a seasoned dealmaker’s grit, he sailed off on this desperate venture in March 1776.

Silas Deane

Covert Envoy

Aware of the intrigue awaiting him (the canny Benjamin Franklin likely briefed him), he posed as a merchant in a modest apartment in a quiet part of Paris, not Versailles. From there, he undertook the daunting task of convincing France to throw in with the Americans, at a time when British General William Howe was unleashing a sea and land campaign that would drive the Americans from New York and the Jerseys. Neutral France would prove a hard nut to crack, officially. His task was complicated by the fact that the spy services of both France and Britain were watching this obscure American.

Rodrigue y Hortalez, Et Cie

Dean hit pay dirt when French Foreign Minister Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, connected Deane with a pesky clockmaker and renowned playwright, Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais. Beaumarchais secretly approached Vergennes about taking action to aid the Americans' struggle, but Vergennes would not risk British ire—at least not yet. 

Beaumarchais

The roguish Beaumarchais had set up a front company, Rodrigue y Hortalez, a Spanish company, to smuggle goods to America. Dean jumped at the opportunity, negotiating the transfer of 200 cannons, 25,000 uniforms, and ammunition that kept the Continental Army alive through 1777. Ships slipped from Le Havre to American ports, their cargoes disguised as commercial goods. Each shipment was fraught with danger, as French ports swarmed with British spies, spreading gold to detect evidence of French perfidy. Exposure, being caught in flagrante delicto, could cause Vergennes to close the operation, leaving the American cause in mortal peril.

Covert Shipments Nurtured the Rebellion

Insider Threat

But the threat, as usual, was from within. Edward Bancroft, a former pupil of Deane, became his secretary, privy to all aspects of the operation and everything else Deane was up to. The problem was that Bancroft was a British agent who clandestinely fed information to the British embassy, ensuring details would arrive on King George’s ministers’ desks within days.

Edward Bancroft

Enter Big Ben

The Cause was looking weak, very weak, in late 1776, and the need for a formal alliance was growing increasingly separate. The Continental Congress decided to up the ante by sending a former American representative in London to help Deane. Benjamin Franklin was not just another envoy—he was possibly the most renowned man of the era and soon eclipsed Deane, who was more of a back-office operator. Franklin would soon take the lead in dealings with the French.

Talent Scout

But Deane was doing much more than kibbitzing with the aristocracy. He actively recruited talent for the Cause, sending large numbers of experienced (sometimes, not so) officers to serve in the Continental Army. Among them were the Marquis de Lafayette, Baron De Kalb, Casimir Pulaski, Baron von Steuben, Thomas Conway, and Philippe du Coudray. The latter brought heat on Deane when he ticked off Congress with demands for money and rank, and Conway would be controversial in many ways. Still, they did provide a shot of Vitamin B-12 in the butt of an Army struggling for experienced leaders. Deane also helped John Paul Jones, arranging the initial French support for Jones’s first raids in European waters.

Lafayette

Another Enemy Within

When an American planter and scion of the aristocratic Lee family of Virginia entered the scene, clouds darkened over Deane. Newly arrived diplomat Arthur Lee distrusted Deane, accusing him of profiteering from supply contracts. Lee’s suspicions had some merit; Deane’s merchant instincts did lead him to dabble in stocks, blurring public duty and private gain. These accusations, though unproven, were a blight on his record. When the American victory at Saratoga in October 1777 made a formal alliance just a matter of time, Deane’s welcome had worn out. Congress took Lee’s allegations seriously and recalled the man whose efforts kept the Cause alive in its darkest hours.

Arthur Lee

Not Sunny in Philadelphia

When Deane arrived at the nation's capital in 1778, he was unprepared for the deluge. He had anticipated praise, but instead faced a grilling from Congress over his accounts. Unprepared, with incomplete records, he faltered. It worsened for him in 1781 when his private letters, expressing doubts about America’s chances and urging peace with Britain, were published. 

Philadelphia Was Unwelcoming

Branded a traitor, Deane fled to Europe, living in exile in London and Ghent. Who stole them? Some point to Bancroft, but Lee cannot be ruled out. Deane’s final years were grim. In 1789, he died suddenly aboard a ship bound for America, possibly from poisoning. It was not until the 19th century that documents exonerated Deane from the charges against him, but by then his grim legacy was sealed in the minds of most Americans.

Meeting De Kalb and Lafayette

Grim Legacy?

Deane, thrust into the shadowy world of diplomacy and skullduggery, did quite well until inside forces, a spy and an implacable political foe, undid him. Yet the record is clear. The canny businessman initiated the supply chain that would feed the Cause, recruited (mostly) good talent, and set the stage for Franklin, Adams, Jay, and others to complete the work of making Paris a second front in the war against Britain. Bancroft’s treachery, Lee’s vendetta, and Congress’s ingratitude crushed his legacy, but Deane’s work in Paris kept the American Revolution alive. As he stood by the Seine in 1776, gazing at a city that could make or break a nation, he could not foresee the cost—only that freedom demanded it.

Although action and intrigue are the hallmarks of the YankeeDoodle Spies series, the war was, in fact, mainly won through the latter.Intrigue, fortified by no small dose of guile, enabled the rebel Americancolonies to throw off the yoke of the British Empire. They also received alittle help from their friends, particularly a Frenchman who played the greatgame of international diplomacy through a mix of statesmanship, espionage, anddeception. 

Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes

 Charles Gravier,Comte de Vergennes, was a shrewd statesman who orchestrated a complex diplomatic strategy against France’s despised enemy, Great Britain. He maintained a calm andaccommodating demeanor with his opponents and even kept his friends and allieson their toes.

Burgundian Roots

It is almost ironic that this relentless foe of Britainoriginated from an ancient ally of the English and an adversary of France, theGrand Duchy of Burgundy. However, when Charles Gravier was born in Dijon on achilly December day in 1719, the region was merely a province of France.Gravier’s father was a local magistrate, respectable but not particularly highin the French social hierarchy.

Dijon, Capital of Burgundy

Following in his father’s footsteps, young Charles studiedlaw. Eschewing the military or clergy that ensnared so many sons of the elites,he entered the French diplomatic service at the age of twenty. Soon, hispatience, intellect, and knack for intrigue set him on a lifetime trajectorythat would change the world.

A Diplomat’s Rise

 Vergennes’ earlyposts provided the training of a diplomat and a spy. His apprenticeship began inLisbon in 1740 during the heated years of the War of the Austrian Succession.He learned to read a room, assessing the strengths and weaknesses of couriers and diplomats—and their true intentions. Postings in Bavaria and the Palatinate followed. More challenging wasthe 1755 plum posting as ambassador to Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), where the Ottomans anddiplomats of the Russian Empire tested his wiles.

Istanbul

Experience in the Byzantine world of the formerly Byzantine Ottoman Empire prepared him for later challenges, like Sweden in 1768. There, he facedhis Russian adversaries once more, employing a mix of charm, persuasion,espionage, and gold to keep the court’s pro-French party in power and the Swedes who favored Catherine the Great's Russia out. 

Gravier: Ambassador to the Sublime Porte

These posts schooled Vergennes in the art of high (and low)diplomacy, and foreshadowed what the mastermind could do when he reached thenext level in the diplomatic corps.

Catherine the Great, Czarina of Russia

The next level emerged when Louis XVI ascended to the thronein 1774. Now a seasoned diplomat, Gravier would take on the challenge of alifetime, guiding a France weakened by the Seven Years' War back to the centerof the world stage as foreign minister. A year later, events across the oceanwould provide that opportunity.

Exploiting Revolution

In the spring of 1775, the slow-burning insurrection in the American colonies erupted into a powder keg of revolutionary warfare. Evenfrom far-off Versailles, the canny Vergennes could smell opportunity, if notthe gun smoke. The catastrophic treaty ending the Seven Years’ War had tornaway France’s most valued colonies—Canada was gone, India had been diminished, the West Indies islands were lost, West Africa had been lost to Britain, and Louisiana was given to Spain ascompensation. France might not regain any of its lost colonies, but it sought revenge. The prickly American colonists now allowed Vergennes to bleed Britaindry.

Action at Lexington Brings War to America

Vergennes was no friend of liberty. He played a power game,using the Yankees as his baseball bat. While Britain’s army and navy werebogged down, France had a chance to regain its power and prestige. Hedispatched agents to investigate the rebels. Were they tough enough to endure?Could they fight the world’s most powerful military? Vergennes wanted answersbefore he risked his nation.

Black Operations

When America’s first envoy, Silas Deane, turned up in Parisin 1776, with his hand out, looking for aid. Vergennes kept it low—he was notready to connect France to the rebellion. But a covert op might buy him time.When Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, a playwright with a sideline inskullduggery, approached him with a secret scheme to help America (and harm theAnglais), Vergennes consented.  With Vergenneslooking the other way, he set up a fake trading outfit called RoderigueHortalez et Cie. This front company shipped muskets, powder, and cannons acrossthe ocean with tobacco and other cash crops sailing to France, where they'dsell and the profits then used to replace the French munitions and ordnance.  At the same time, France had plausible deniability (it was a Spanish firm). Theports of France became smuggling hubs, with crates marked for “privatemerchants” ignored by French customs officials.  

Beaumarchais: Playwright and Schemer

Enter Doctor Franklin

The stakes grew higher when the most famous American in theworld, Benjamin Franklin, wandered into Paris in December 1776. Franklin’s furcap and homespun wit charmed and disarmed everyone from salon ladies to shopkeepers.Vergennes wisely let Franklin-mania work the crowd but kept the seriousbusiness behind closed doors. Despite Franklin's charm offensive, Gravierremained adamant. He would not risk an open alliance until the Americansproduced a major battlefield victory.

Benjamin Franklin

 

Turning Point

That came in October 1777. A British invasion from Canadawas smashed in two pitched battles, resulting in the surrender of the Britishat Saratoga, New York. Paris was a blaze when word of the triumph arrived. Forhis part, Vergennes now had proof of success and began coaxing the still-antsyKing Louis XVI to throw in with the American cause officially.

Turning Point: Saratoga Surrender

On 6 February 1778, France and the United States signed twotreaties. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce primarily aimed to promote trade andcommercial relations between the two nations. The Treaty of Alliance establishedmilitary cooperation against Great Britain during the American RevolutionaryWar. Just like that, France was at war with Britain, and Vergennes was all in.But the ever-cautious King Louis delayed a public proclamation until Late March.

Signing the Treaty of Amity

This war would be expensive, and Vergennes secretly pursuedsupport from Spain and the Netherlands. Despite diplomatic and secretmaneuverings, Spain did not join until 1779, with the stated goal of reclaiminglands lost to the British, specifically West Florida and Gibraltar, rather thanaiding the upstart Protestant rebels. Although they had been secretly lendingto the Americans, the Dutch did not join until 1780. Vergennes’ diplomatic tourde force had finally paid off.

City of Spies

Paris during the Revolution rivaled Cold War-era Berlin as ahub of intrigue. Spies lurked in every tavern and salon, the British sniffingout American plans, the French tracking British agents, and Spain’s agentsgathering on behalf of His Catholic Majesty. Vergennes’s counterintelligencewas everywhere: surveilling diplomats, intercepting letters, and planting falseleads. One wolf in sheep’s clothing was Edward Bancroft, Franklin’s secretary, whowas feeding secrets to London. Despite his agents’ best efforts, Vergennes didnot uncover Bancroft’s treachery, which stayed hidden till later. Some believeFranklin was in on the treachery and exploited it.

Spy: Edward Bancroft

France at War

Versailles was replete with naysayers on the alliance (perhapspersuaded with British gold), and they yapped at the always wobbly Louis. However,the Foreign Minister was now fully aligned with the Americans, ensuring that theflow of aid never stopped. But America’s real need was French military might,especially its navy. Despite some early fits and starts, when it came, itproved decisive.

Chesapeake: The French Fleet Played a Decisive Role

Now was the time for the vengeance Vergennes struggled solong to achieve.  Troops and ships sailedto the New World to join the Americans and exact that vengeance. Franco-Americanefforts faltered at Newport, Rhode Island, and Savannah, Georgia. Still, the1781 Yorktown campaign, where French troops and ships under Rochambeau and deGrasse sealed Cornwallis's troops on the York River in tidewater Virginia, wasthe brainchild of Vergennes.

A Separate Peace

The surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown convinced theBritish that the game was over. But what they could not win on land and sea,they would try to win at the peace table. The spy-versus-spy atmosphere inParis intensified further when the British and American peace commissionersbegan sparring over the details, such as boundaries, fishing rights, tradingrights, western land ownership, and Indian affairs.

French Support Made Yorktown Possible

Vergennes worked toalign the interests of France, Spain (a French ally, not an American one), and theUnited States during peace negotiations. He pushed for a unified approach toensure that the Americans coordinated with French interests.  However, the Americans sometimes actedindependently, to Vergennes' frustration.

Peace of Paris

Vergennes spent most of his time on the broader peaceprocess. The Treaty of Paris was part of a series of agreements collectivelyknown as the Peace of Paris. That resolved the global conflicts among Britain,France, Spain, and the Netherlands. He negotiated terms for France, securingminor territorial gains (like Tobago and parts of Senegal) and protectingFrench interests in the West Indies and India.

Celebrating the Treaty of Peace with Britain in Paris

Vergennes was leery of American commissioners skirtingFrench guidance.  And with good reason.They signed a preliminary peace agreement with Britain in November 1782 withoutconsulting France fully and violating the terms of the 1778 alliance. Despitethis, Vergennes accepted the outcome, recognizing that American independencealigned with France’s overall goal of weakening Britain. Vergennes signed his own treaty with Britain the following year.

Cost of Empire

Vergennes' service came at a cost. In 1781, King Louis appointed him as his Chief Minister, combining the roles of Foreign Minister and Prime Minister. Long days and nights oftoil and the pressure of orchestrating financial, diplomatic, intelligence, andeven military affairs strained him mentally and physically to the point where, onFebruary 13, 1787, he keeled over at 67. He passed away just as France’s war debts started fueling talk of revolution. Somesay Vergennes’ great gamble on America bankrupted France, which eventually ledto the French Revolution in 1789. 

But hindsight is fifty-fifty. Charles Gravier’s goalwas to check British hegemony and restore French glory. To that end, hesucceeded. As for the French Revolution? Even the greatest and most perceptiveminds cannot see the future. Who in 1778 would have thought King Louis's support for America would ultimately result in a trip to the guillotine? But one might speculate that with him guiding the vacillating King Louis, the nation and the monarchy might have avoided the chaos of the French Revolution and the carnage that it brought to France and the world.

King Louis XVI

Americans owe a debt to Charles Gravier, Comte deVergennes—the man who viewed a ragged revolution as France’s opportunity. Hiscunning and insight were instrumental in America’s founding alongside theMinutemen and Continentals. Lauded neither in France nor America, the diplomatfrom Dijon played a pivotal role in the birth of a nation and changing theworld like few others have.

Alliance Rosette Worn By Continental Army Officers

 

 

 

 

In the waning years of the 18th century, as the fires ofrebellion blazed across the Atlantic, William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland, stoodat the apex of Britain’s clandestine war. From his unassuming office in London,hidden behind the façade of bureaucratic mundanity, Eden orchestrated a web ofespionage that stretched from the drawing rooms of Westminster to the muddybattlefields of the American colonies. He was not a man of the sword, but ofthe quill and the whisper, a master of secrets whose name was known only to aselect few, yet whose influence shaped the course of empires.

Privileged Youth

Born in 1744, the son of a Durham baronet, William Eden’searly life was one of privilege and education. He became a legal scholar atEton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1771, he published Principles of Penal Lawand became a recognized authority on commercial and economic questions. Yet hiskeen mind for strategy drew him into the shadowy world of intelligence. By thetime the American colonies began their murmurs of discontent, Eden had alreadyproven his worth in diplomatic circles, but it was his appointment as the headof the British Secret Service in 1776 that would define his legacy.

Eton CollegeSpy Master

The American War for Independence was not just a war of battlesand maneuvers but also an intelligence war. Eden understood this better thanmost. While Secretary of State for the Colonies Lord George Germain plotted grand strategy and generals like Sir WilliamHowe and Lord Charles Cornwallis planned campaigns, Eden waged a silent war,fought with coded letters, double agents, and quiet betrayals. His office,tucked away in a nondescript building near St. James’s, was a nerve center ofespionage. Maps of the colonies, intercepted dispatches, and lists of suspectedrebel sympathizers and agents lay stacked on his desk. Each provided a clue inthe vast canvas of rebellion he sought to undo. To accomplish this, theintelligence budget soared to some £200,000 during this period! That’s about £40,706,380in 2025 money, adjusted for inflation.

George Germain

Reading “Traffic”

Eden began his mornings reviewing reports from his networkof spies, many of whom operated under the cover of merchants, clergymen, oreven Loyalist sympathizers in the colonies. Spies embedded deep within theContinental Army could feed details of troop movements and supply shortagesthat would make their way to London. Spies in the rebel capital worked in thesocial circles of Philadelphia and developed political information throughelicitation and observation. Eden read dispatches with a meticulous eye, hisquill scratching notes in the margins, decoding the hidden meanings behindtheir carefully chosen words.

 

Reading Traffic

The Cocktail Party Circuit

Eden’s evenings were spent in the company of the powerful,attending dinners and balls where the fate of the empire was often decided overport and cigars. He was a master of subtlety, his conversations laced withdouble meanings, his questions probing yet innocuous. At one such gathering,hosted by Lord North, Eden overheard a whispered conversation between twoFrench diplomats, hinting at their plans to escalate support for the rebels.The next day, a coded message was dispatched to a British agent in Paris,tasked with uncovering the details of the French plot.

Diplomats Sharing ConfidencesPolitico & Envoy

In 1778, Eden, as a Member of Parliament, introduced an Actto improve the treatment of prisoners of war, which caused some controversy asAmerican captives were often regarded as traitors, not war prisoners. He also organized, arranged, and accompaniedthe Earl of Carlisle as a commissioner to North America in a failed attempt toend the American War of Independence through negotiation. On his return in 1779,he published his widely read Four Letters to the Earl of Carlisle.  This work discussed the ongoing war with theAmerican colonies, France, and Spain, advocating for continued military effortsto crush colonial resistance. Eden also examines public debts, credit, andsupply-raising methods, alongside Ireland’s push for free trade, reflecting oneconomic and imperial policies.

The Earl of Carlisle

A Spy’s Home Life

Yet, for all his successes, Eden was not immune to theweight of his responsibilities. The war was a personal and political struggle,and the constant stream of betrayals, failures, and losses took their toll. Hewed Eleanor Elliot, of the influential Elliot family.  She and their six sons and eight daughtersprovided some solace, but even in the quiet moments at home, his mind was neverfar from the war. Eden would sit by the fire, a glass of Madeira in hand, hiseyes fixed on the flames as he pondered the next move in the deadly game ofchess he played with the rebels.

Eden's First Daughter, Eleanor Agnes

The Great Game

But Eden’s most significant challenge was collectingintelligence in the one place the war would be won or lost—Paris. The British orchestratedintelligence operations against the American commissioners, the Frenchgovernment, and the Spanish and Dutch representatives. While British diplomatsand agents were also active in all the major European capitals, Paris was thepolitical center of gravity in the game being played out. Spies were recruited and“run” against all parties, with the American Commission in Passy and BenjaminFranklin himself a target. His agents spread disinformation to undermine Frenchconfidence in the American cause or delay their military commitments, thoughwith limited success given France’s strategic commitment.

Benjamin Franklin

Eden tracked negotiations between French Foreign MinisterCharles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, and American representatives like BenjaminFranklin. The goal was to influence the French and Spanish from officiallyjoining the Americans in war with Britain. But in 1778, France threw her hatinto the ring and signed a formal treaty of Amity and Alliance with the UnitedStates. Britain did manage to slow Spain’s entry into the conflict, buteventually that too would fail.

Spies Among Us

One of the darkest moments of Eden’s tenure came in 1781, asthe war neared its climax. The British surrender at Yorktown was a blow to the army and Eden’s carefully constructed network. Many of hisagents were exposed or captured, their identities betrayed by a mole within theSecret Service itself. Eden’s investigation into the breach was ruthless; hisinterrogations were conducted in the cold, stone-walled chambers beneath hisoffice. The traitor, a junior clerk with gambling debts and a taste for Frenchgold, was quietly dealt with, his fate sealed in a manner that left no trace.

Surrender at YorktownManaging Defeat

Once defeat was inevitable, the British went to workmanaging it. Eden’s role shifted from espionage to diplomacy. In 1783, he wasappointed as one of the negotiators of the Treaty of Paris, tasked withsalvaging what he could from the wreckage of Britain’s colonial ambitions. Heapproached the negotiations with the same cold pragmatism that had defined hisintelligence work, securing favorable terms for Britain despite losing thecolonies. For Eden, it was not a defeat but a strategic retreat, a chance topreserve the empire’s strength for future battles along the lines outlined in his Letters to the Earl of Carlisle.

Treaty of Paris Negotiations

Spy Turned Statesman

In the following years, Eden continued his excellentservice as a member of Parliament, a diplomat, and Governor-General of Ireland.In 1789, William Eden was raised to the Peerage of Ireland as Baron Auckland. In1793, he retired from public service but was further honored when he was raisedto the Peerage of Great Britain as Baron Auckland, of West Auckland in theCounty of Durham. But his time as the head of the Secret Service remained hisdefining chapter—and few knew of it. Eden was the silent architect of Britain’scovert resistance, the man who had fought not with a sword but with secrets,wielding information like a blade in the dark.  

William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland

William Eden died on 28 May 1814 at 69 in Beckenham, Kent. The 1st Baron Auckland remains the shadow warlord whohad guarded Britain through its darkest hour. Despite his public honors, thereal hallmark of his life was duty and sacrifice as the silent watcher who hadstood between order and chaos, waging unseen battles that shaped the course ofhistory.

 

This special Saint Patrick's Day installment celebrates Commodore John Barry: The Irish lad who became the father of the US Navy.

John Barry

1745—Ireland. In a small tenant farm along a windswept coastline in County Wexford, a boy named John Barry is born into a family of poor Catholic farmers. Life under the English penal laws ground Irish spirits into the sod. Like many Irish families, the threat of eviction always loomed, and one day, the landlord forced them off their meager piece of land. Homeless, the Barrys moved to the rugged seaside village of Rosslare. The luck of the Irish—hardly, but it did offer young Barry a way out. He learned the ropes on his uncle’s fishing skiff, and sailing it through choppy waves was the lad’s first call of the sea. Who could predict that someday he’d make the Royal Navy tremble at his name and build what would eventually become the world’s most powerful navy?

Cabin Boy to Captain

Barry’s no stranger to hard knocks. As a lad, he barely had shoes, but he’s got grit. By his teens, he was aboard ships, starting as a cabin boy—fetching water, scrubbing decks, and dodging the mate’s boot. The sea is a brutal school, but Barry is a quick study. With broad shoulders and a cool head that marked him as a natural leader, he quickly climbed the ranks. The 1760s found him in Philadelphia, a bustling port on the Delaware River, becoming wealthy through trade. By twenty-one, Barry was a merchant shipmaster, captaining vessels for big names like Reese Meredith. With his impressive height—over six feet—he was burly, yet calm and composed even in raging storms and churning seas. Soon, he was in high demand as a skipper. “Big John” Barry was the man owners wanted at the helm of their ships.

Citizen of Philadelphia

He spends years hauling cargo across the Atlantic, dodging icebergs and setting speed records—such as the fastest day of sailing in the century aboard the prestigious Black Prince. By the 1770s, John Barry had reached the pinnacle of his fortunes. However, storm clouds were gathering on the horizon—tension between the colonies and British authorities. Soon, Barry would exchange merchant manifests for cannonballs.

Merchant Captain at Sea

From Merchant Navy to theContinental Navy

When the First Continental Congress gathered in 1774, Barry was already friends with future Revolutionary War financier Robert Morris. When the Second Continental Congress opted to create a navy in 1775 using merchant vessels, Barry’s Black Prince was transformed into the USS Alfred, which raised the Grand Union flag—America’s first naval ensign. Barry advocated for a naval command and was appointed captain of the USS Lexington, a 14-gun brig, that December.

Command of USS Lexington

He was the first army or navy officer to receive a Continental commission, signed by none other than John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress, on March 14, 1776. History is about to be made!

First Fight

Barry’s first action occurs on April 7, 1776, off the Virginia Capes. Barry proves his resolve. The Lexington engages with the British tender Edward, a spirited ship serving HMS Liverpool. Broadsides are exchanged—cannonballs flying, wood splintering—for an hour and twenty minutes. Cool as ever, Barry shows his fortitude, issuing orders, and when the smoke clears, Edward strikes her colors—the first British ship captured by a Continental vessel. Barry sails his prize into Philadelphia—the American navy’s first!

Fighting Captain

Warrior on Land and Sea

By late 1776, the Cause was at its lowest point. Washington’s dwindling army was reeling from New York, retreating through New Jersey. What could Barry do? His next assigned ship, the frigate Effingham, was still in the shipyard. Eager to join the fight, he gathers sailors, marines, and heavy artillery, forms an ad hoc naval brigade, and marches to Washington’s aid. At Trenton, his crew transports artillery through snow and ice, pounding the Hessian lines. His brigade performs again at Princeton. Washington personally thanked Barry before charging him with escorting wounded prisoners to British General Cornwallis under a flag of truce. A fighting Irishman on land or sea!

Commanding Guns at Trenton

Back on the water in 1777, Barry commanded the brig USS Delaware and began raiding British shipping in the river of the same name. Like shooting ducks in a barrel for the seasoned naval leader, he took over twenty prizes, including the armed schooner Kitty. In 1778, Barry took command of the frigate Raleigh, seizing three more prizes before she ran aground during a skirmish with British warships. Barry was forced to scuttle his ship but quickly took command of another vessel, the USS Alliance, the fleet’s fastest ship. In 1780, he was given a secret mission: to take Colonel John Laurens to France. That mission—obtaining loans and supplies—helped secure Washington’s victory at Yorktown in October 1781. To top it off, Barry captured a few British prizes on the return trip—just because he could.

Secret Mission to France

The Final Fights

Barry’s most brutal fight occurred on 29 May 1781. Standing tall on the quarterdeck of the Alliance, he faced the struggle of his life. Two British sloops, the HMS Atalanta and HMS Trepassey, pounced on him. All hell broke loose as they closed in—broadsides shredding sails, grapeshot tearing through flesh. Barry sustained an awful wound when a piece of grapeshot tore through his shoulder. He remained at his station, rallying his crew and shouting commands, but the "effusion" of blood eventually forced him below deck. Ultimately, both British warships struck their colors—a double surrender. Now, even British captains concede that he’s an American sea captain to reckon with.

Taking on a Brace of Warships

Fittingly, on 10 March 1783,Barry fought the war’s last naval battle off Cape Canaveral. His Alliance squaredoff against HMS Sybille and a squadron. Barry is in a bind as he is convoyingthe , loaded with cash andsupplies from the West Indies. Barry outguns Sybille, but the rest ofthe squadron is on him. He abandons this newly won prize, Sybille, opting tosave the convoy and get Duc de Lauzane safely to port. With the warcoming to a close, Barry had made his mark as a fighting captain.

Final Fight

Father of the Navy

Our Celtic commodore quickly returned tomerchant sailing, making a historic voyage to China in 1787—opening trade withthe “reclusive empire.” However, in 1794, with the U.S. Navy forming under theNaval Act, Barry was asked to serve his nation once more—as its firstcommodore! President Washington himself presented Barry Naval Commission NumberOne. Barry began overseeing the construction of the 44-gun frigate USS UnitedStates, his flagship.

USS United States

During the Quasi-War with France(1798–1801), Barry returned to work, capturing French merchantmen in the WestIndies while training the next generation of naval leaders—future legends like Stephen Decatur and Richard Dale.

The Final Watch

Despite increasingly worseningasthma, Barry continued to sail. But on 6 March 1803, United States slidesinto port with Barry on the quarterdeck for the last time—his sea duty done.  He may have given up his ship, but not theNavy, staying on as its head until he died on 13 September 1803 at hisStrawberry Hill home near Philadelphia. The first commodore was buried with fullhonors at St. Mary’s Churchyard. While happily married, Barry died childless.But his legacy lives in the Navy he shaped and with the men hementored.

John Barry Gravesite

Legacy of a Legend

Some random shots about JohnBarry: Author of a signal book for better fleet communication, early advocatefor a standalone Navy Department (it happened in 1798). Barry was a man of God—he began each day with a Bible reading. He was a brilliant leader of men—he cared for his crew, keeping them fed and fit. Wise practitioner of discipline— quelled three mutinies with a firm hand and afair heart, earning lasting loyalty from his men.

Barry's Advocacy Paid Off in 1798

Many tributes came: fourdestroyers were named USS Barry, Barry statues stand in Wexford and D.C., and the CommodoreBarry Bridge. Rhode Island celebrates September 13 as “Commodore John BarryDay.”

John Barry statue in Wexford, Ireland

Who's the Best?

Though not as well-known as John Paul Jones, Barry excelled in war and peace. Starting as an Irish cabin boy and rising to American commodore, he fought on land and sea, built a navy from the ground up, and created a blueprint for courage. Historians often refer to John Barry as the “Father of the American Navy,” a title many attribute to John Paul Jones. Jones's post-Rev War contributions were uneven, with him accepting a commission in Czarina Catherine the Great's navy (see my blog, Yankee Doodle in the Crimea). However, unlike Jones, Barry's legacy includes longevity and institution-building. Jones had flair, while Barry made a lasting impact.

John Paul Jones as Russian Admiral

Next time you hear “I have not yet begun to fight,” tip your hat to Jones—but raise a glass to the quiet giant who led the Revolution to victory and beyond. Fair winds to you, Commodore Barry. 

John Barry in His Office

Avellina Balestri's "All Ye That Pass By: Book 1: Gone for a Soldier" is a significant addition to historical fiction. It focuses not merely on facts, deeds, and battles but also on the nuanced interplay between faith, identity, and the tumult of war in the late 18th century. 

Historical Background

With the backdrop of the French and Indian War and the American Revolution, "Gone for a Soldier" brings to life the lesser-told stories of British Loyalists and the Catholic recusants in England. The novel's protagonist, Edmund Southworth, is a Catholic in a time when his faith could lead to ostracism or worse, providing a unique perspective on the conflict between personal belief and societal expectations. Balestri uses this setting to delve into the complexities of identity during a time of upheaval, where allegiances were often torn between country, faith, and family. All this is set against the vast canvas of Canada and New York during the failed British Saratoga campaign.

The Players

The fictional English Catholic Edmund Southworth stands at the heart of the narrative, embodying the conflict of his era. His journey from a boy intrigued by military life to a man grappling with the contradictions of his Catholic faith and his duty as a soldier is portrayed with depth and sensitivity. Balestri's character development shows Edmund's internal conflicts, moments of doubt, and eventual growth into a figure of moral strength. Generals John Burgoyne, Simon Fraser, and other key officers interact across the vast canvas of this work, and the author catches their personalities just right. Gentleman Johnny Burgoyne has a unique role as Edmund's mentor.

General John Burgoyne

Other characters, such as Edmund's Protestant friends, military figures from the British army, and even historical personalities such as King George III, are made real, building a grand and intimate narrative. Her characters serve not just as foils to Edmund but also as mirrors to society's varied perspectives on religion, politics, and war.

A Tapestry of Conflict

The novel explores several themes, with faith and loyalty being central. Balestri examines how these concepts intersect with personal identity and societal roles. Edmund's Catholic faith is a constant undercurrent, influencing his decisions, interactions, and perception of the war. This exploration of faith in a time of conflict adds a layer of philosophical inquiry to the narrative, questioning how one reconciles personal beliefs with the demands of war.

Death of Simon Fraser

Loyalty is another theme intricately woven into the plot. Edmund's loyalty to his faith, king, and comrades in arms often clashes, providing a rich ground for character development and ethical discourse. The novel also subtly critiques the notion of loyalty to a nation or cause when that loyalty might conflict with one's moral or spiritual beliefs.

A Bit of the Bard

Balestri's prose is both lyrical and precise, capturing the essence of the 18th-century setting while maintaining a pace that keeps the reader engaged. The narrative style is reflective, often pausing to ponder the implications of actions and the nature of human endeavor, which suits the novel's introspective themes. Readers who demand rich historical detail with engaging character interactions and plot developments will enjoy this. As John Burgoyne was a playwright himself, there are many references to Shakespeare's work.

The Bard

Cultural and Educational Impact

"All Ye That Pass By: Book 1: Gone for a Soldier" does not just entertain; it educates. Besides being a significant Revolutionary War tale, by focusing on a Catholic perspective during a pivotal time in British and American history, Balestri fills a gap in historical fiction where religious minorities' experiences during colonial conflicts are often overlooked. This novel is a valuable resource for educators looking to give students a more rounded view of the historical period.

Burgoyne Surrenders at Saratoga

Why Read?

"All Ye That Pass By: Book 1: Gone for a Soldier" is a commendable piece of historical fiction that combines a passion for history with a profound understanding of the human condition. It challenges readers to think about loyalty, faith, and identity in ways that are still relevant today. This work gives readers a rich tapestry of historical events viewed through an intensely personal narrative lens, compellingly exploring human resilience, loyalty, and the quest for spiritual and personal truth. 

This book is for anyone interested in the intersection of faith and war (and who isn't?) or readers seeking a different perspective on the Revolutionary War period. It is a testament to Balestri's skill in weaving history into a compelling narrative, making readers not just spectators but participants in Edmund Southworth's moral and spiritual journey. We await a future book to learn where his journey takes him.