Defining hypnosis has always been difficult:we can see the effects, such as behavioural changes or reduced pain, but exactlyhow they come about is less clear. In fact, one study suggested that:

‘Hypnosis hasalways been an enigma, and it can be said that the more it is subjected to thelight of modern empirical scrutiny, the more it eludes definition.’ [1]

In this article,I’m going to see how far recent advances in neuroscience might help us toresolve that enigma and shed some light on the nature of hypnosis.

 

Does hypnosisexist?

There have alwaysbeen disagreements about what hypnosis is and what it can do. Historically, thearguments tended to be around whether hypnosis was primarily a physical state(Mesmer’s Animal Magnetism, Charcot’s emphasis on pathology) or a psychologicalone (Braid’s neurophysiological theory, Liebeault and Bernheim’s psychotherapy).But there have also been discussions about whether it exists at all. Thatparticular argument works like this [2].

 

The ‘non-state’ (orsocio-cognitive) theories say that hypnosis essentially doesn’t exist except asa social construct. In this theory, people taking part in hypnosis are activelyinvolved with what is going on, and their responses to suggestions made by thehypnotist are explained by contextual and psychological factors such ascompliance, conformity, obedience, social roles, expectation, etc. Inductionsand other rituals connected with hypnotising people simply enhance those othereffects. (Sarbin, 1950; Spanos, 1986; Kirsch, 1985, 1991, 1994)

The ‘state’ (or intrapersonal)theories work on the basis that hypnosis exists as an identifiable and specificaltered state of consciousness. Responses to suggestions made by the hypnotistare a result of being in this altered state of consciousness and/or anassociated change in suggestibility, brain function, or reality distortions. Ofcourse, the other factors mentioned above also play a part (we can’t avoidthem) but they do not explain all the results. (Hilgard, 1974, 1986; Woody& Bowers, 1994; Gruzelier, 1998).

 

With newtechnology, such as functional neuroimaging, researchers can see precisely howhypnosis changes the brain’s activity. This means that neuroscience can hopefullygive us a greater understanding of hypnosis and how it works to help ourclients.

 

What happens whenwe’re hypnotised?

A study carried outat Stanford University (Jiang et al. 2017 [3]) used functional imaging to recordbrain activity in four different conditions, which were applied in differentand random order, using subjects who scored both very high and very low forhypnotisability:

Being asked inhypnosis to imagine a time when they felt happy,

Being asked inhypnosis to remember or imagine a holiday,

Being in a restingbut un-hypnotised state,

Being asked torecall a memory in an un-hypnotised state.

This showed that whensubjects were hypnotised the following changes happened:

Focused Attention: Activitywas reduced in the Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex, which is a warning systemthat tells you when something needs your attention. When it slows down, yourfocus is narrowed, and it helps you to tune out distractions.

Emotional Control: Theconnections between the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex and the Insula increase.The DLPFC controls what we think of as the ‘executive functions’ that help withplanning and decision-making. The Insula monitors your bodily awareness andemotional responses. When the two work more closely together, you have more controlof your physical and emotional reactions.

Reduced Self-Awareness:The connections between the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex and the Default ModeNetwork in the brain are reduced. The DMN includes the Posterior Cingulate Cortex, whichis associated with self-awareness and as above, the DLPFC is associated withexecutive functions. When the self-awareness and decision-making parts of thebrain are less connected, you feel less self-conscious and less aware of normal,everyday thoughts. You are immersed in what is happening ‘in the moment’.

Other studies, suchas Egner et al. (2005)[4] and Rainville & Price (2003)[5] have supported the ideathat hypnosis alters brain regions involved in attention control, sensoryexperiences and inhibition.

That goes a longway towards explaining the effects we see both on the stage and in the therapyroom. If hypnotised individuals are less inhibited by what they think they ‘should’do, think or feel, interpret sensory experiences differently, are more incontrol of usually automatic responses, and are more focused on the interactionbetween themselves and the hypnotist, they are much more likely to go alongwith the suggestions they’re given, whether that is to cluck like a chicken orfeel less anxiety or pain.

Cognitive changesin hypnosis

You will almostcertainly have come across the Stroop Effect, even if you don’t know the name. It’swhen people have trouble processing conflicting bits of information.

Try this. Name the colour of this word out loud - BLUE. Did you find that tricky? Because it’s printed in red,there is a conflict between the instructions you've been given and the automatic response of reading the word - even if you said 'red' it probably took you longer than you'd usually need to read such a simple word.

In hypnosis,however, people can bypass this conflict, suggesting a change in automaticthought processes. When hypnotised subjects are given a suggestion to seeletters as meaningless symbols, the processing conflict doesn’t happen and theycan say the colour of BLUE as easily as BLUE. (Oakley & Halligan, 2011 [6]). This works with other automaticattentional processes as well.

Other researchers (Razand Campbell, 2011 [7]) have referred to this as ‘hypnotic dyslexia’ and it’spossible that comparing scans of neurotypical and dyslexic people in and out ofhypnosis who are processing this kind of task will help us understand more about that condition.

Does research help us define hypnosis?

I believe it getsus further forward but doesn’t (yet) provide a fully satisfactory definition.

Most studies aremore focused on what hypnotherapy does rather than what it is, so there arestill questions to ask about its fundamental nature.

 

Does researchanswer the state/non-state question?

The research stronglysuggests that, under hypnosis, predictable brain changes take place whichimplies a distinct state. But, again, most researchers look at the brain’sreactions to suggestions during hypnosis rather than on the hypnotic stateitself. [8]

To clarify whether these changes are due to hypnosis or simply thepower of suggestion, we need more studies comparing the brain’s response tosuggestions both in and out of a hypnotic state.

 

The future of hypnosis in neuroscience

Kihlstrom (2013)[9] says that ‘Future developments in thisarea … will require more than machine time, computational power, and a tamehypnotist.’

I’ve alreadymentioned the possibility of gaining more understanding of dyslexia by usinghypnotic suggestions, and other conditions might benefit in thesame way. For example, Kihlstrom (ibid.) suggests that, by comparing scans of brains before, during and after a hypnoticallyinduced amnesia experience, we may learn a lot about how memory works.  

While some elementsof hypnosis remain difficult to pin down, exploring it through neuroscience isoffering fresh insights. And it works both ways. In exploring hypnosis, wemight also come to a better understanding of brain functions like memory,attention, and even conditions like dyslexia. 

So, as we learn about hypnosisfrom neuroscience we can also reach a better understanding of neuroscience fromhypnosis.

References:

[1] Pratt et al, (1988) A clinical hypnosis primer, New York: John Wiley and Sons.

[2] Hypnosisandsuggestion.org. (2012). Theories of Hypnosis | Hypnosis and Suggestion. [online] Available at: https://hypnosisandsuggestion.org/the....

[3] Cerebral Cortex, Volume 27, Issue 8, August 2017, Pages4083–4093, https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhw220

[4] Egner, Tobias, Jamieson, Graham, Gruzelier, John, Hypnosis decouples cognitive control from conflict monitoring processes of the frontal lobe, NeuroImage, Volume 27, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 969-978, ISSN 1053-8119, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage..... 

[5] Rainville, P., & Price, D. D. (2003). Hypnosis Phenomenology and the Neurobiology of Consciousness. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 51(2), 105–129. https://doi.org/10.1076/iceh.51.2.105...

[6] David A. Oakley, Peter W. Halligan, Using hypnosis to gain insights into healthy and pathological cognitive functioning, Consciousness and Cognition, Volume 20, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 328-331, ISSN 1053-8100, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2010.... 

[7] Raz, A., & Campbell, N. K. J. (2011). Can suggestion obviate reading? Supplementing primary stroop evidence with exploratory negative priming analyses. Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, 20(2), 312–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2009...

[8] Halligan, P. W., & Oakley, D. A. (2014). Hypnosis and beyond: Exploring the broader domain of suggestion. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 1(2), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000019 

[9] Kihlstrom JF. Neuro-hypnotism: prospects for hypnosis and neuroscience. Cortex. 2013 Feb;49(2):365-74. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.016. Epub 2012 Jun 5. PMID: 22748566; PMCID: PMC3528837.

Main photo - metamorworks on iStockPhotoOther images Photo by Bhautik Patel on Unsplash, Milad Fakurian on Unsplash,

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Author: Debbie Waller is an experienced hypnotherapist and hypnotherapy trainer. She is the author of Anxiety to Calm: a Practical Guide to a Laid-Back Life, The Hypnotherapist's Companion, Their Worlds, Your Words, and The Metaphor Toolbox, all available from Amazon or direct from the author. Find out more about Debbie's services on
Yorkshire Hypnotherapy Training - multi-accredited hypnotherapy practitioner training, taster days and foundation levels.
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